CHAPTER  III. 

EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM, 


[For  previous  articles  see  System  of  Public  Education  in  Belgium,  Report  for  1892-93,  vol.  1,  pp.  157- 
201.  Public  Education  in  Belgium,  Report  for  1894-95,  vol.  1,  pp.  313-319.] 

Belgium:  Constitutional  monarchy. — Area,  11,373  square  miles;  population  (census  of  1890), 
6,069,321.— The  executive  aDd  legislative  powers  vested  in  hereditary  King,  Senate,  and  Chamber  of 
Representatives.  Senators  of  two  classes:  First  class,  in  number  equal  to  half  the  number  of  repre- 
sentatives, elected  directly  by  the  voters ; second  class,  elected  by  provincial  councils,  their  number 
being  proportioned  to  the  population  of  the  respective  provinces.  Representatives  elected  directly 
by  the  voters,  number  proportioned  to  the  population,  but  may  not  exceed  1 for  every  40,000  inhab- 
itants. 

The  divisions  of  the  Kingdom  for  local  government  are  provinces  (9)  and  communes  (2,596,  census 
of  1890),  both  of  which  enjoy  a large  measure  of  autonomy.  The  affairs  of  the  former  are  adminis- 
tered by  a governor  appointed  by  the  King,  a provincial  council  (elected),  and  a permanent  deputa- 
tion, consisting  of  the  governor  and  six  members  of  the  council  chosen  by  that  body. 

Three  distinct  authorities  participate  also  in  the  administration  of  the  commune:  an  elected  coun- 
cil, a burgomaster  appointed  by  the  King  from  the  members  of  the  council,  and  a body  of  aldermen 
(college  6chevinal),  consisting  of  the  burgomaster  and  from  two  to  five  members  of  the  council  chosen 
by  that  body.  The  council,  which  represents  the  people  directly,  is  the  principal  source  of  authority 
in  communal  affairs  (law  regulating  provincial  and  communal  organization,  March  30,  1836,  and  modi- 
fying laws,  1838,  1842,  1848,  1860,  1865;  alco  Les  ministres  dans  les  principaux  pays  d’Europe  et 
d’Amerique,  par  L.  Dupriez,  tome  1,  pp.  262-268). 

The  provinces  are  also  divided  into  arrondissements  and  these  again  into  cantons.  These  divisions 
are  intended  to  facilitate  the  control  of  tho  central  authority,  and  are  not  strictly  speaking  divisions 
for  local  government. 

In  three  provinces  lying  along  the  border  of  France — i.  e.,  Hainault,  Luxembourg,  and  Namur,  and 
also  in  Libge,  a central  province — French  or  Walloon  is  the  prevailing  language.  In  Antwerp,  Bra- 
bant, East  and  West  Flanders,  and  Limbourg,  the  Flemish  or  Dutch. 

The  population  of  Belgium,  as  shown  by  tho  census  of  1890,  was  6,069.321,  comprised  in  an  area  of 
11,373  square  miles.  Further  analysis  gives  2,894,694  as  tho  population  of  communes  of  5,000  inhab- 
itants or  more  and  3,174,627  for  communes  of  less  than  5,000  inhabitants. 

The  census,  by  sex,  gives  men,  3,026,954;  women,  3,042,367.  It  appears,  moreover,  that  about  36  per 
cent  of  the  males  (1,079,035)  and  40  cent  of  the  females  (1,204,647),  or  38  per  cent  of  the  entire  popula- 
tion, are  unable  to  read  and  write.  In  1866  illiterates  formed  53  per  cent  and  in  1880  42  per  cent  of 
the  entire  population. 

Belgium  is  preeminently  a Catholic  country.  Protestants  number  only  about  10,000  and  Jews  4,000. 
The  census  of  1890  gives  30,098— men  4,775,  women  25,323— members  of  religious  orders  in  the  King- 
dom, of  whom  24,585  are  native  Belgians. 

The  executive  affairs  of  the  Government  are  administered  through  seven  departments.  The  educa- 
tional interests  are  intrusted  to  the  minister  of  the  interior  and  of  public  instruction.1 

Topical  Outline. — Brief  conspectus  of  the  system  of  public  education — Summa- 
rized statistics — Comparative  view  of  school  population  and  school  attendance 
1846-1890 — Effects  of  successive  school  laws — Expenditure  on  primary  schools — 
City  of  Brussels:  Inquiry  into  the  living  conditions  of  children  attending  the 
public  schools.  Secondary  schools:  Recent  changes  in  curriculum — Technical  and 
industrial  schools  of  Belgium — The  Antwerp  Congress  on  commercial  education. 

BRIEF  CONSPECTUS  OF  THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM. 

The  system  of  public  education  in  Belgium  has  changed  but  little  in 
general  form  since  its  organization  under  the  law  of  1842. 

It  comprises  three  departments,  primary,  secondary,  and  superior,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  minister  of  the  interior,  who  is  also  minister  of  public  instruction. 


The  present  incumbent  ia  M.  Schcllaert. 


p 8988 


89 


90 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

The  principal  officers  of  education  "below  the  minister  are  two  general  directors, 
one  in  charge  of  the  primary  department  the  other  of  the  secondary  and  superior 
departments. 

Institutions  of  all  grades  receive  State  appropriations,  which  cover  about  38  per 
cent  of  the  cost  of  primary  schools,  about  65  per'  cent  of  that  of  secondary  schools, 
and  nearly  the  entire  cost  of  the  State  universities.  The  balance  of  expenditure  is 
borne  by  the  provinces  and  communes  or  by  private  managers  (usually  clerical),  pri- 
vate schools  being  also  subsidized  by  the  State. 

All  schools  maintained  or  aided  by  the  State  are  subject  to  State  inspection.  For 
this  service  there  are  three  inspectors  appointed  for  secondary  instruction  (enseigne- 
ment  moyen),  namely,  one  general  inspector  and  two  ordinary  inspectors,  one  for  the 
humanities  the  other  for  mathematics  and  the  sciences ; for  primary  instruction  there 
are  principal  inspectors,  one  or  more  in  each  of  the  nine  provinces  and  subordinate- 
cantonal  inspectors. 

The  minister  exercises  his  authority  in  advice  with  the  deliberative  councils  (con- 
seils  de  perfectionnement).  These  are  three  in  number,  corresponding  to  the  three 
scholastic  departments.  They  are  formed  by  appointment  from  the  teaching  bodies 
and  the  officers  of  education,  and  deliberate  upon  the  questions  submitted  by  the 
minister. 

The  principal  secondary  schools,  Royal  Athdiffies,  for  boys  only,  are  controlled 
directly  by  the  minister.  He  appoints  their  professors  and,  in  advice  with  the  coun- 
cil, determines  their  curriculum.  Their  enrollment,  5,852  students  in  1895,  is  about 
20  per  cent  of  the  enrollment  in  all  the  public  secondary  schools.  In  the  inferior 
secondary  schools,  managed  and  supported  by  the  communes  with  some  aid  from 
the  State,  there  were  enrolled  the  same  year  24,007  pupils,  of  whom  6,937  were  in 
schools  for  girls. 

The  minister  also  appoints  the  professors  in  the  State  universities  and  regulates 
the  university  programmes.  The  students  in  the  two  State  universities,  Ghent  and 
Liege,  numbered  1,918  in  1895.  The  attendance  in  the  two  private  universities, 
Brussels  and  Louvain,  raised  the  total  number  of  university  students  to  5,004. 

The  control  of  elementary  schools  rests  largely  with  the  communes.  In  every 
commune  there  must  be  at  least  one  elementary  school.  Under  the  existing  law, 
passed  in  1895,  this  school  may  be  a communal  school,  supported  entirely  by  public 
funds,  an  adopted  school,  a subsidized  private  school,  or  a private  school  fulfilling 
the  conditions  of  adoption.  The  communal  council  appoints  the  teacher  and 
arranges  the  school  programme,  subject  only  to  the  requirement  of  the  school  lav 
as  to  the  obligatory  branches.  The  enrollment  in  all  classes  of  State-aided  primary 
schools  in  1895  was  720,191.  There  was  also  142,384  children  in  infant  schools  (€coles 
gardiennes)  under  public  inspection.  The  detailed  statistics  of  these  several  classes 
of  schools  at  the  beginning  and  close  of  the  half  decade  1890-1895  were  as  follows : 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM, 


91 


92 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 


1890. 


\ 

Classes  of  institutions. 

Pupils  or  students. 

Teachers  or  professors. 

Curront  ex- 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

Male. 

Femalo. 

Total. 

penditures. 

Infant  schools  (ecoles  gardien- 

164,  540 

Primary  schools  (ages,  6 to  14 
years) : 

291, 798 

183,  360 
175, 860 

675, 158 
276, 904 

6, 008 
1,687 

3,  586 
3,  746 

9,  594 
5, 433 

$6, 663,  705 

101, 040 

Total 

392,  838 

359, 224 

752,  062 

7,  695 

7,  332 

15,  027 

Primary  normal  schools : 

337 

290 

627 

929 

1,440 

2,  369 

Total 

1,266 

1,730 

2,  996 

Schools  for  adults : 

Public 

1 



69, 270 

Subsidized  private 

Total - 

69,  270 



Secondary  schools : 

"Rnyfi  I A tlipnAp.s 

5,852 

17,  070 

5,  852 

24,  207 

314, 722 

State  and  communal  sec- 
ondary   

6,  937 

Total 

22,  922 

6,  937 

29, 859 

) 

.... 

Secondary  normal  schools 

53 

85 

138 



Superior  instruction : 

State  universities— 

Ghent  (Gand) 

665 

Li6ge 

1,253 

1,419 
1,  669 

Private  universities — 
Brussels 

T.on  vain 

Total 

5,144 



The  following  tables  show  the  movement  of  population  as  indicated 
by  successive  censuses,  aud  also  of  school  population  for  the  same  or 
approximately  the  same  periods: 

Movement  of  school  population — ages  6 to  14. 


School  population. 

Year. 

Total 

population. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

Percent- 
age to 
total  popu- 
lation. 

1S4.fi 

4, 337,196 
4,  529,  560 

4,  827,  833 

5,  520,  009 

6,  069,  321 
6,  495,  886 

363, 170 
353,  366 
379,  416 
466,  769 
514, 915 

341,  284 
346, 944 
376,  507 
460,  019 

704, 454 
700,  310 
755,  923 
926,  788 
1, 024,  836 

16. 47 

1856  ......................................... 

15.  46 

1806  

15.  65 

1880  

16.  78 

1890  

509,  921 

16. 88 

1896  

EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


93 


Movement  of  school  population — ages  G to  14 — Continued. 


3845. 

1857. 

1889. 
1881. 
1885. 

1890. 

1894. 

1895. 

1896. 


Enrollment. 


Ratio  of  enroll- 
ment in  jmblic  and 
subsidized  private 
schools  to — 


Com- 

munal 

schools. 

Subsi- 

dized 

private 

schools. 

Total. 

218, 054 

108, 559 

326, 613 

302, 743 

96,  885 

399,  628 

424, 349 

69,  036 

493,  385 

839,  317 

801 

340, 118 

345,  687 

325 

346, 012 

440, 646 

175, 445 

616,091 

465, 814 

229,  397 

695,  211 

476, 191 

244,  000 

720, 191 

475, 158 

276,  904 

752, 062 

Private 
schools 
not  sub- 
sidized. 

Popula- 
tion 6 to 
14. 

Total 

popula* 

tion. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

99, 772 

45.71 

7.  53 

99, 707 

57.  06 

8.  82 

85,  339 

65.  27 

10.  21 

36.  69 

6. 16 

(a) 

(a) 

60. 11 

10. 15 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

11.57 

a No  census. 


CHANGES  EFFECTED  BY  SUCCESSIVE  LAWS. 

The  statistics  of  enrollment  in  the  several  classes  of  primary  schools, 
as  shown  above,  indicate  the  general  progress  in  school  attendance  for 
a period  of  fifty  years,  and  also  in  a measure  the  peculiar  disturbances 
caused  by  successive  laws  which,  emanating  from  parties  bitterly 
opposed  to  each  other,  have  been  framed  from  a political  rather  than 
from  an  educational  point  of  view. 

The  changes  effected  by  these  laws  have  turned  ostensibly  upon  the 
question  of  religious  instruction,  although  their  deeper  purpose  has 
been  that  of  enlarging  or  restraining  clerical  influence  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  schools.  The  latest  law,  that  of  1895,  is  more  extreme  in 
: respect  to  religious  instruction  than  any  previous  law..  Its  bearings 
' will  be  best  understood  by  a brief  rehearsal  of  the  main  provisions  of 
the  successive  laws. 

The  first  general  law  respecting  popular  education  was  passed  in 
1842,  twelve  years  after  the  separation  of  Belgium  from  the  Nether- 
lands. The  law  followed  in  many  essentials  Guizot’s  law  of  1833,  which 
i forms  the  basis  of  the  elementary  school  system  of  France.  It  provided 
that  in  each  commune  one  primary  school  at  least  should  be  established 
in  an  accessible  place.  The  commune  was  not,  however,  obliged  to 
• establish  a public  school  if  its  educational  needs  were  fully  met  by 
private  schools.  A commune  might  also  adopt  one  or  more  private 
schools  if  the  provincial  authorities  so  approved.  For  all  indigent 
children  instruction  was  to  be  gratuitous. 

The  commune  appointed  the  teacher  and  had  control  of  the  communal 
schools,  excepting  in  the  matter  of  religious  and  moral  instruction ; this 
■was  reserved  to  the  clergy.  It  was  required  that  a teacher  should  be 
paid  an  annual  salary  of  not  less  than  200  francs  ($40) ; increased  after- 
wards to  850  francs  ($170).  The  teacher  was  also  to  be  provided  with 
a house  or  money  equivalent  for  the  same. 


94 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

State  appropriations  for  the  schools  were  available  only  when  the 
commune  had  raised  a certain  sum  and  the  province  had  duplicated 
the  amount.  A double  system  of  inspection  was  established — lay  and 
ecclesiastical.  The  former  was  exercised  by  cantonal  and  provincial 
inspectors  appointed  by  the  Government ; the  latter  was  confided  to 
the  bishops.  Two  State  normal  schools  (increased  in  time  to  six)  were 
established  for  the  training  of  primary  teachers,  and  church  normal 
schools  were  also  recognized.  The  law  made  religious  instruction 
obligatory,  and  placed  it  under  the  direction  of  the  minister  of  the 
denomination  to  which  the  majority  of  the  pupils  in  the  school  should 
belong.  The  children,  whose  parents  so  desired,  were  to  be  excused 
from  the  religious  exercise.  In  like  manner  religions  instruction  in 
each  normal  school  was  confided  to  a clergyman  attached  to  the  staff 
and  supervised  by  church  authorities.  This  law  remained  in  force 
thirty-seven  years. 

In  1879,  the  Liberal  party  having  come  into  power,  anew  law,  almost 
revolutionary  in  its  requirements,  was  passed. 

The  particulars  in  which  it  departed  radically  from  the  previous  law 
were  as  follows:  Every  commune  was  obliged  to  maintain  at  least  one 
public  school,  the  actual  number  to  be  determined  in  each  case  by  the 
Government.  (As  under  the  previous  law,  however,  two  or  more  com- 
munes might  be  authorized  to  unite  together  for  the  maintenance  of 
a single  school.)  Moreover,  the  State  could  oblige  the  commune  to 
establish  also  an  infant  school  and  a school  for  adults  (evening  school). 

For  cantonal  inspectors  appointed  by  the  Government,  under  advice 
of  the  provincial  authorities  and  serving  without  salary,  the  law  of  1879 
substituted  two  classes  of  inspectors — provincial  inspectors,  appointed 
by  the  King,  ajid  subordinate  inspectors,  appointed  by  the  central 
authority.  All  salaried  officials  were  made  responsible  directly  to  the 
minister  or  to  his  representative.  Although  the  right  of  the  communes 
to  control  their  own  schools  was  respected  by  the  new  law,  it  deter- 
mined the  manner  in  which  this  control  should  be  exercised.  Moreover, 
it  created  a special  agency,  school  committees  (comites  scolaires),  to 
keep  watch  over  the  schools.  The  members  of  these  bodies  were  to 
be  appointed  by  the  communal  council,  excepting  where  several  com- 
munes had  united  to  maintain  a school,  when  the  appointment  went  to 
the  minister  of  public  instruction.  The  minimum  salary  of  teachers 
was  raised  to  1,000  francs  ($200).  The  number  of  State  normal  schools 
was  raised  from  6 to  12. 

The  law  required  that  teachers  should  be  native  Belgians  and  fur- 
nished either  with  the  diploma  of  a teacher  or  of  a professor  in  the  lower 
order  of  secondary  schools.  It  forbade  the  employment  of  members 
of  a religious  order  as  teachers,  and  abolished  the  ecclesiastical  inspec- 
tion of  schools. 

The  programme  of  obligatory  subjects  was  greatly  extended,  and 
religious  instruction  was  excluded.  This  was  to  be  left  to  the  care  of 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


95 


tlie  family  and  the  churches,  excepting  that  ministers  might  be  allowed 
the  use  of  a room  in  the  school  building,  before  or  after  the  school  ses- 
sion, to  give  religious  instruction  to  the  children  of  their  respective 
communions  attending  the  school. 

It  was  also  provided  that  if  no  clergyman  came  to  give  instruction 
in  the  school  the  teacher  should  be  entitled  to  hear  the  “ repetitions ” 
which  were  “necessary  to  engrave  on  the  memory  of  the  child  the  form 
of  religious  instruction  prescribed  by  the  communion  to  which  the 
child  belonged.”  All  books  used  in  the  schools  were  to  be  approved 
by  the  Government.  The  law  also  withdrew  State  recognition  from 
private  normal  schools  and  the  clergyman  from  the  staff  of  the  State 
normal  schools,  “assuring  to  each  student  complete  liberty  to  perform 
the  religious  duties  prescribed  by  the  faith  to  which  he  belonged.” 

The  law  of  1879  was  bitterly  opposed  by  the  Catholic  party,  and 
within  eighteen  months  of  its  passage  the  church  had  opened  primary 
schools  in  1,936  communes,  which,  on  December  15,  1880,  contained 
about  450,000  pupils.  These  efforts  continued  during  the  five  years  of 
the  law’s  operation,  in  which  period  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  com- 
munal schools  fell  from  510,588  to  324,656,  a loss  of  36  per  cent. 

In  1884  the  Catholic  party,  having  gained  a majority  in  the  legisla- 
ture, a new  school  law  was  passed.  This  provided  for  the  adoption  of 
private  schools,  restored  religious  instruction  to  the  programmes  as  an 
optional  branch,  opened  the  teaching  service  to  naturalized  foreigners, 
and  in  general  gave  a large  measure  of  independence  to  the  communes 
with  respect  to  the  conduct  of  the  schools. 

The  articles  respecting  these  fundamental  conditions  were  as  follows: 

Every  commune  must  have  at  least  one  communal  school  situated  in  an  accessible 
place. 

The  commune  may  adopt  one  or  more  private  schools.  In  this  case  the  King,  upon 
the  advice  of  the  “permanent  committee,”  may  exempt  the  commune  from  the  obli- 
gation to  maintain  a communal  school.  This  dispensation  can  not  be  accorded  if 
twenty  heads  of  families  having  children  of  school  age  demand  the  creation  or  the 
maintenance  of  a school  for  the  instruction  of  their  children  and  the  “permanent 
committee”  concurs  in  this  demand. 

In  case  of  necessity  two  or  more  communes,  upon  authority  from  the  King,  may 
unite  to  found  and  maintain  a school.  (Art.  1.) 

Communal  primary  schools  shall  be  directed  by  the  communes. 

The  number  of  the  schools  and  of  the  teachers  shall  be  determined  by  the  com- 
munal council  according  to  the  needs  of  the  locality.  The  council  also  controls  every- 
thing relating  to  the  establishment  and  organization  of  infant  schools  (<5coles  gar- 
.diennes)  and  of  schools  for  adults.  (Art.  2.) 

The  children  of  poor  parents  shall  receive  gratuitous  instruction.  The  communes 
must  see  that  all  those  who  do  not  attend  uninspected  private  schools  are  provided 
j with  instruction  either  in  a communal  or  adopted  school.  (Art.  3.) 

I Primary  instruction  comprises  as  obligatory  branches  reading,  writing,  elements 
of  arithmetic,  the  legal  system  of  weights  and  measures,  the  elements  of  the  French 
language,  of  the  Flemish,  or  the  German,  according  to  local  requirements,  geogra- 
' phy,  history  of  Belgium,  elements  of  drawing,  singing,  and  gymnastics.  Moreover, 
it  comprises  needlework  for  girls,  and  foi*  boys  in  the  rural  districts  notions  of 
agriculture. 


96 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

Communes  have  the  riglit  to  extend  the  programme  as  may  he  possible  or  desira- 
ble. The  communes  may  inscribe  religious  and  moral  instruction  at  the  head  of  the 
curriculum  of  all  or  some  of  their  elementary  schools.  This  instruction  must  be 
given  at  the  commencement  or  at  the  end  of  the  school  hours.  Children  whose 
parents  so  request  shall  be  excused  from  attending  such  instruction. 

(а)  In  the  case  of  a commune  in  which  twenty  heads  of  families  having  children  of 
school  age  ask  that  their  children  shall  be  exempted  from  assisting  at  religious 
instruction,  the  King  can,  at  the  request  of  the  parents,  oblige  such  commune  to 
organize  for  the  use  of  these  children  one  or  more  special  classes. 

(б)  If,  in  spite  of  the  request  of  twenty  heads  of  families  having  children  of  school 
age,  the  commune  refuse  to  inscribe  the  teaching  of  their  religion  in  the  school  cur- 
riculum, or  hinder  such  instruction  being  given  by  the  ministers  of  their  religion,  or 
by  persons  approved  of  by  these  latter,  the  Government  can,  at  the  request  of  the 
parents,  adopt  one  or  more  private  schools,  as  may  be  requisite,  provided  they  meet 
the  conditions  prescribed  for  adoption  by  the  commune.  (Art.  4.) 

* * * * * *■  * 

The  communes  bear  the  expenses  of  primary  instruction  in  the  communal  schools; 
the  provinces  also  contribute  not  less  than  the  product  of  2 centimes  on  the  amount 
of  the  direct  tax.  ^ 

A commune  can  not  obtain  subsidies  from  the  State  or  province  for  primary  instruc- 
tion unless  it  contributes  at  least  4 centimes  additional  to  the  direct  tax  and  carries 
out  the  present  law  in  all  points.  (Art.  6.) 

Certain  provisions  of  tlie  law  with  respect  to  teachers  favored  church, 
at  the  expense  of  secular  teachers,  or  at  least  they  gave  authority  in 
respect  to  the  suspension  of  teachers,  which  was  eventually  used  to 
replace  the  latter  class  by  the  former. 

Article  7,  regulating  the  appointment,  tenure,  and  salary  of  teachers, 
is  as  follows : 

The  communal  council  has  the  right  of  appointing,  of  suspending,  of  placing  en 
disponibilite  (out  of  active  service  but  drawing  pay),  and  of  revoking  the  appoint- 
ments of  teachers.  At  the  same  time  the  teacher’s  appointment  can  not  be  canceled 
without  the  approval  of  the  permanent  deputation. 

The  council  and  the  teacher  may  appeal  to  the  King.  The  same  rules  apply  to  all 
suspension  for  more  than  a month  and  to  all  suspension  with  stoppage  of  pay  or  upon 
reduced  pay.  Suspension  once  decreed  by  the  communal  council  can  not  be  renewed 
by  it  on  the  same  facts,  nor  shall  it  exceed  six  months’  duration.  The  King,  in 
accord  with  the  advice  of  the  permanent  deputation,  both  the  teacher  and  the  com- 
munal council  being  heard,  may  suspend  or  revoke  a teacher’s  appointment.  Sub- 
ject to  the  same  advice,  he  may  place  a teacher  en  disponibilite. 

The  salary  of  an  unattached  teacher  is  paid  by  the  commune  if  the  order  depriv- 
ing him  of  service  is  issued  by  the  communal  council;  by  the  State,  if  the  order  is 
issued  by  the  King.  No  place  may  remain  more  than  a month  without  a teacher. 

The  College  ^ chevinal  (board  of  aldermen)  designates  the  substitute.  The  council 
fixes  the  minimum  of  teachers’  salaries.  The  salary  can  not  be  less  than  1,000  francs 
($200)  for  assistant  teachers,  and  1,200  francs  ($240)  forprincipal  teachers.  The  teacher 
has  besides  this  the  right  to  be  lodged  or  to  receive  an  allowance  for  house  rent. 

The  communal  council  can  place  a teacher  on  the  unattached  list,  and  so  keep  him 
from  active  employment,  in  which  case  he  will  receive  waiting  pay,  under  conditions 
which  will  be  determined  by  royal  decree.  The  amount  can  not  be  less  than  half 
his  salary  nor  less  than  750  francs.  This  pay  will  bo  furnished  by  the  State,  the 
province,  and  the  commune  in  the  proportions  fixed  by  law. 

Article  8,  opening  the  service  to  foreigners,  was  as  follows : 

The  communal  schoolmasters  are  chosen  from  among  those  Belgians,  either  by 
birth  or  naturalization,  who  have  gained  the  diploma  of  an  elementary  teacher  after 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


97 


being  trained  in  a public  normal  school,  or  who  have  passed  an  examination  after 
having  attended  lectures  during  at  least  two  years,  or  who  have  gained  a diploma  for 
secondary  teaching  (enseignement  moyen)  of  the  second  degree.  They  can  also  be 
selected  from  among  those  persons  who  have  successfully  passed  the  teachers’  exami- 
nation before  a jury  appointed  by  the  Government. 

With  respect  to  adopted  private  schools,  it  was  further  provided 
that — 

(1)  The  school  must  be  established  in  a suitable  building. 

(2)  At  least  half  the  number  of  teachers  must  have  received  a diploma  or  have 
passed  the  examination  for  the  male  or  female  teachers;  but  the  minister  is  at  lib- 
erty to  dispense  with  this  condition  during  the  two  years  following  the  promulga- 
tion of  this  law.  Those  who  have  had  charge  of  communal  schools  prior  to  the 
present  Law  are  exempt  from  examination. 

(3)  Should  religious  instruction  form  a part  of  the  curriculum,  such  instruction 
shall  be  given  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the  school  hours.  Children,  on  the 
application  of  their  parents,  shall  bo  exempted  from  attending  religious  instruction. 

(4)  The  curriculum  shall  comprise  the  subjects  mentioned  in  section  1 of  article  4 
of  the  law. 

(5)  The  adopted  school  must  accept  State  inspection. 

(6)  It  must  admit  poor  children  without  requiring  other  payment  than  that  pre- 
scribed in  article  3 of  the  law. 

(7)  The  number  of  hours  of  school  attendance  shall  not  be  less  than  twenty  per 
week,  without  including  the  time  devoted  to  teaching  of  religion  and  morals;  after 
deducting  the  time  employed  on  needlework,  this  number  shall  not  be  less  than  six- 
teen. (Art.  9.) 

Communal  and  adopted  private  schools  were  subject  to  State 
inspection,  but  this  was  not  to  be  extended  to  religious  and  moral 
instruction. 

Private  normal  schools  were  recognized  under  the  law,  and  might 
receive  State  aid  if  they  submitted  to  State  inspection.  It  was  further 
provided  that  persons  who  obtained  the  diploma  of  primary  teacher 
from  a private  normal  school  between  the  adoption  and  the  repeal  of 
the  law  of  July  1,  1879,  might  receive  the  appointment  of  communal 
teacher  on  condition  of  obtaining  a confirmation  of  such  diploma  from 
a board  organized  in  accordance  with  the  law. 

Within  three  years  from  the  passage  of  the  law  802  communal  schools 
and  492  teachers’  places  were  suppressed  and  many  teachers  were 
placed  “en  disponibilite.”  The  law  proved  unsatisfactory,  however,  to 
extremists  of  both  parties,  and  was  bitterly  opposed  by  the  State 
teachers.  The  Catholic  party,  which  was  strengthened  by  the  violent 
demands  of  the  Socialists,  complained  that  the  law  did  not  put  religious 
teaching  into  the  right  hands.  “Practically,”  they  said,  “there can  be 
no  religious  instruction  in  schools  without  the  help  of  the  clergy.” 
They  urged,  further,  “that  in  many  important  towns  religious  teaching 
had  been  added  to  the  curriculum,  not  from  a disinterested  desire  to 
provide  it,  but  in  order  to  prevent  the  Government  from  stepping  in  to 
adopt  private  schools,  and  that  in  such  cases  the  character  of  the 
religious  instruction  left  much  to  be  desired;  that  those  who  in  their 
anxiety  to  secure  religious  instruction  between  1879-1884  had  founded 
ED  99 7 


98 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 


private  scliools  which  were  still  continued,  but  were  not  as  yet  subsi- 
dized by  the  State,  were  paying  for  education  twice,  viz,  in  the  schools 
of  their  choice  and  in  the  communal  schools,  to  which  they  contributed 
through  central  and  local  taxation.” 

To  meet  some  of  the  complaints  of  those  who  subscribed  to  private 
elementary  schools,  the  Belgian  Government  provided  in  1894  a sum  of 
3,000,000  francs  to  be  spent  in  aid  of  private  schools.  This  encouraged 
proposals  for  further  expenditure  in  the  same  direction,  which  were 
eagerly  demanded  by  one  party  and  violently  opposed  by  the  other. 
The  whole  country  became  excited  over  the  subject,  and  finally,  in 
the  summer  of  1895,  the  Belgian  ministry  introduced  a new  law, 
whieh  was  designed  to  satisfy  the  dominant  party  and  to  improve  the 
condition  of  teachers.  It  provided  that  religious  instruction  should  be 
made  obligatory  and  confided  to  the  clergy;  that  subsidies  to  private 
elementary  schools  should  be  increased,  and  it  regulated  both  the  sal- 
ary and  tenure  of  teachers.  The  general  provisions  as  to  the  establish- 
ment or  adoption  of  schools,  free  tuition  for  poor  children,  and  the  per- 
sons eligible  for  appointment  as  teachers,  remained  as  under  the  law  of 
1884. 

The  principal  change  effected  by  the  law  relates  to  religious  instruc- 
tion. This  is  made  a compulsory  subject,  to  be  placed  at  the  head  of 
all  primary  school  programmes.  Instruction  in  the  same  is  confided  to 
the  clergy,  who  must  have  free  access  to  the  schools,  either  to  give  or 
to  supervise  the  religious  lessons,  as  they  may  decide.  The  require- 
ment extends  to  normal  schools  also. 

The  articles  referring  to  religious  instruction  are  as  follows: 

Primary  instruction  comprises,  as  obligatory  branches,  instruction  in  religion 
and  morals,  reading,  writing,  elements  of  arithmetic,  the  legal  system  of  weights 
and  measures,  the  elements  of  the  French  language,  of  the  Flemish  or  the  German, 
accordiug  to  local  requirements,  geography,  history  of  Belgium,  elements  of  draw- 
ing,  singing,  and  gymnastics.  Moreover,  it  comprises  needlework  for  girls,  and  for 
boys  in  the  rural  districts  notions  of  agriculture. 

Communes  have  the  right  to  extend  the  programme  as  may  be  possible  or  desira- 
ble. In  the  primary  schools  to  which  the  law  is  applicable,  the  ministers  of  the 
several  denominations  shall  be  asked  to  give  the  instruction  in  religion  and  morals, 
or  to  cause  it  to  be  given  under  their  supervision,  either  by  the  teacher,  if  he  con- 
sents to  do  so,  or  by  a person  approved  by  the  communal  council. 

The  first  hour  or  the  last  half  hour  of  the  morning  or  of  the  afternoon  session  shall 
be  given  each  day  to  this  instruction.  Children  whose  parents  make  the  request  in 
the  following  form  may  be  exempt  from  the  religious  instruction : The  undersigned, 
in  pursuance  of  the  right  conferred  upon  him  by  article  4 of  the  law  relating  to 
primary  instruction,  requests  that  his  child  be  exempt  from  attending  the  instruc- 
tion in  religion  and  morals.  (Art.  4.) 

The  inspection  of  the  instruction  in  religion  and  morals  shall  be  exercised  by 
persons  delegated  by  the  “ chiefs  of  the  confessions.”  The  delegates  discharge 
their  duties  according  to  conditions  specified  in  a royal  arrete. 

The  chiefs  of  the  several  confessions  notify  the  minister  of  the  interior  and  of  pub- 
lic instruction  of  the  appointment  of  their  delegates,  who,  after  sanctioning  the 
same,  transmits  the  necessary  instructions  to  the  provincial  and  communal  officials, 
as  well  as  to  the  inspectors  of  primary  instruction. 


M 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


99 


Every  year,  in  the  month  of  October,  each  of  the  “chiefs  of  religion”  addresses  to 
the  minister  of  the  interior  and  of  public  instruction  a detailed  report  upon  the 
manner  in  which  the  instruction  in  religion  and  morals  is  given  in  the  schools 
controlled  by  the  law.  (Art.  5.) 

Teachers  must  show  an  equal  solicitude  for  the  education  and  instruction  of  the 
children  under  their  charge.  They  are  to  neglect  no  opportunity  to  inspire  in 
their  pupils  the  sentiments  of  duty,  love  of  country,  respect  for  national  institu- 
tions, aud  attachment  to  constitutional  liberty.  They  must  abstain  from  any 
attack  upon  the  religious  beliefs  of  the  families  whose  children  are  intrusted  to 
them.  (Art.  6.) 

Witli  regard  to  the  support  of  elementary  schools,  the  law  of  1895 
provides,  as  heretofore,  that  this  shall  be  at  the  charge  of  communes, 
the  provinces,  and  the  State.  The  commune  must  take  the  initiative 
in  establishing  the  school,  whether  communal  or  adopted,  providing 
the  building  and  equipments,  and,  in  order  to  share  in  either  the  State 
or  the  provincial  appropriation, 

Must  contribute  a sum  equal  to  the  product  of  4 centimes  additional  to  the  direct 
tax,  and  must  execute  the  law  respecting  primary  instruction  in  all  particulars. 

The  province  must  contribute  for  school  purposes  an  amount  not  less  than  the 
product  of  12  centimes  additional  to  the  direct  tax.  The  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the 
commune  for  primary  instruction  can  not  be  used  for  another  purpose.  (Art.  7.) 

Article  8 provides  for  an  annual  grant  from  the  legislature  for  ele- 
mentary education,  to  be  divided  among  communal  schools,  adopted 
schools,  and  private  schools.  The  conditions  for  apportionment  are  the 
same  for  all  classes  of  schools.  They  must  submit  to  inspection  and 
conform  to  the  general  regulations  as  to  curriculum,  staff,  and  posi- 
tion, but  private  schools  will  not  be  under  the  management  of  any  local 
authority.  It  is  explained  in  an  official  circular  addressed  to  the  gov- 
ernors of  provinces  that  it  is  not  necessary  for  a f>rivate  school  to  include 
religious  instruction  in  its  programme  in  order  to  receive  Government 
aid.  • 

The  advocates  of  the  law  defend  the  appropriation  for  private  schools 
on  the  ground  that  if  the  State  and  communes  had  been  required  to 
establish  and  maintain  all  the  elementary  schools,  public  and  private, 
which  are  now  in  existence  in  Belgium,  the  annual  cost  would  have 
been  0,500,000  francs  ($1,300,000)  greater  than  the  present  outlay  from 
central,  provincial,  and  communal  funds. 

As  under  the  previous  law,  the  right  of  appointing  and  suspending 
teachers  and  of  revoking  their  appointments  rests  with  the  communal 
council,  appeal  to  the  u permanent  deputation  ” (provincial  committee), 
and  finally  to  the  King,  being  possible  in  each  case.  There  is  also  the 
same  provision  for  dispensing  with  the  services  of  public  teachers  as 
under  the  law  of  1884. 

The  new  law  further  provides  that  no  teacher’s  salary  shall  be 
reduced  during  his  tenure  of  office  in  any  one  commune.  The  posi- 
tion with  respect  to  salaries  is  slightly  improved.  As  against  a mini- 
mum annual  salary  of  $200  for  assistant  teachers  and  $240  for  princi- 


100  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

pals  under  the  previous  law,  the  present  law  fixes  the  following*  classes 
and  rates : 


Principals. 

Assistants. 

Men. 

Women. 

Men. 

Women. 

Fifth  class,  communes  of  1,500  inhabitants  or  less 

Fourth  class,  communes  of  1,501  to  10,000  inhabitants 

Third  class,  communes  of  10,001  to  40,000  inhabitants 

Second  class,  communes  of  40,001  to  100,000  inhabitants 

First  class,  communes  of  more  than  100,000  inhabitants 

$240 

280 

320 

360 

480 

$240 

2G0 

280 

320 

440 

$200 

220 

240 

200 

280 

$200 

220 

220 

240 

240 

The  teacher  must  also  be  provided  with  a residence  or  indemnity  for 
the  same  ranging  from  $40  to  $160.  (Art,  13.) 

An  increment  of  $20  is  allowed  for  every  four  years  of  good  service 
until  the  total  increment  amounts  to  $120.  (Art.  15.) 

It  was  earnestly  contended  by  the  advocates  of  the  bill  that  the 
spread  of  socialistic  doctrines  was  due  to  the  purely  secular  character 
of  the  teaching  in  the  public  schools,  and  that  in  order  to  insure  sound 
public  opinion  religious  instruction  must  be  made  compulsory.  The 
socialists  urged  on  the  other  hand  that  the  law  violates  the  principles 
of  the  constitution  by  requiring  parents  to  make  a declaration  of  their 
religious  faith  and  by  recognizing  an  official  religion.  They  also  main- 
tained that  it  interfered  with  communal  rights  and  gave  teachers  no 
real  security  in  their  positions. 

M.  Beernaert,  the  former  minister  of  the  interior,  expressed  the  views 
of  the  moderate  opponents  of  the  law — among  whom  were  many  Catho- 
lics— in  a speech  delivered  while  the  bill  was  pending. 

He  held  that  the  proposed  measure  gave  too  much  power  to  the  State 
in  respect  to  determining  the  character  of  religious  instruction,  and 
that  if  it  became  law  it  might  easily  be  used  by  a reactionary  party  for 
the  destruction  of  all  religious  teaching  in  the  schools.  He  foresaw,  as 
a result,  constant  change  in  the  educational  policy  of  the  country,  which 
would  entail  great  discomfort  upon  the  teachers  and  greatly  weaken 
the  influence  of  the  schools.  He  desired  some  more  stable  settlement 
(4  the  problem. 

The  moderate  party  in  the  legislature,  under  the  lead  of  M.  Beernaert, 
urged  a measure  less  stringent  than  the  law  of  1879  and  giving  greater 
independence  to  the  communes  than  the  proposed  law. 

They  submitted  proposals  as  follows : (1)  That  the  State  should,  where 
necessary,  subsidize  denominational  schools  not  under  private  manage- 
ment, and  that  each  commune  should  be  free  to  give  religious  instruc- 
tion or  not  in  its  own  or  in  adopted  schools  as  it  might  prefer.  (2)  That 
the  communes  should  not  be  compelled  to  make  religion  an  obligatory 
subject  in  the  programme  of  the  communal  schools,  and  to  submit  to 
ecclesiastical  authority  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  religious  instruc- 
tion. The  efforts  of  the  moderates  were  so  far  successful  that  it  was  pro- 
posed in  the  lower  chamber  to  divide  the  Government  bill  into  two  parts, 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


101 


treating’  separately  the  clauses  touching  the  salaries  and  position  of 
teachers,  upon  which  all  parties  seemed  agreed.  The  proposal  was, 
however,  lost  by  a vote  of  73  to  61. 

EXPENDITURE  ON  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 

The  expenditure  for  primary  instruction  in  Belgium  reached  the  sum 
of  $6,663,705  (33,318,527  francs)  in  1896,  equivalent  to  $1.02  per  capita 
of  population  and  to  $8.85  per  capita  of  enrollment.  Of  the  entire 
sum  the  State  provided  41.6  per  cent;  the  communes,  46.2  per  cent; 
the  provinces,  5 per  cent;  school  fees,  4 per  cent,  and  subscriptions, 
legacies,  etc.,  3.2  per  cent. 

The  direct  maintenance  of  the  infant  schools  (ecoles  gardiennes),  1,769 
in  number,  and  the  primary  schools,  either  public  or  subsidized,  num- 
bering in  all  6,546,  absorbed  74  per  cent  of  the  entire  expenditure. 

As  compared  with  1894  this  expenditure  showed  an  increase  of 
$620,408,  of  which  the  State  contributed  $225,083.  This  has  gone 
really  to  the  support  of  subsidized,  private,  or,  in  other  words,  paro- 
chial schools. 

CITY  OF  BRUSSELS — INQUIRY  INTO  THE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  CLOTH- 
ING, NOURISHMENT,  AND  LODGING  ACCOMMODATIONS  OF  THE  PUPILS 

OF  THE  COMMUNAL  SCHOOLS — REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  TO 

THE  CHIEF  MAGISTRATE,  ALDERMEN,  AND  COMMON  COUNCIL  OF 

BRUSSELS. 

The  schools  of  Brussels,  which  attained  a very  high  degree  of  effi- 
ciency during  the  supremacy  of  the  Liberal  party,  have  suffered  less 
than  those  of  other  communes  from  the  political  vicissitudes.  The  city 
has  long  been  noted  also  for  efforts  in  behalf  of  destitute  and  neglected 
children.  An  investigation  was  recently  made  under  the  order  of  the 
municipal  council  into  the  living  conditions  of  the  children  attending 
public  schools.  The  report  of.  this  investigation,  which  is  valuable  both 
as  a model  and  for  its  valuable  results,  is  here  summarized: 

In  1888  the  Progress  Club  was  authorized  by  the  college  dchevinal  to  provide  soup 
for  the  needy  children  of  the  primary  schools  on  their  leaving  school  at  noon.  The 
distribution  of  soup  was  at  first  made  in  the  rooms  of  the  cooperative  society  called 
“Les  Ateliers  Reunis,”  but  after  a while,  in  order  to  avoid  the  crowding  of  the  rooms 
of  the  society,  the  distribution  took  place  in  the  schools  themselves,  the  society  con- 
tinuing in  charge  of  the  preparation  of  the  soup,  the  city  furnishing  the  tables,  the 
Progress  Club  providing  the  dishes,  while  the  school  servants  washed  the  dishes  and 
cleaned  up  the  rooms.  This  arrangement  was  extended  to  the  kindergartens,  and 
the  city  having  placed  certain  drays  at  the  disposal  of  the  Progress,  together  with 
the  necessary  men,  the  soup  could  be  carried  rapidly  and  with  the  necessary  regu- 
larity, while  the  considerable  expense  of  transportation  was  saved  the  club  by  this 
means. 

It  was  upon  this  rock  of  the  expense  of  transportation  to  the  different  schools 
that  the  attempt  of  1880  was  wrecked.  At  that  time  a society  for  feeding  the  poor 
children  in  the  communal  schools  was  founded,  under  the  presidency  of  M.  Buis, 
alderman  in  charge  of  public  instruction,  by  the  financial  assistance  of  the  late  M. 
Bischoffsheim,  whose  generosity  was  never  appealed  to  in  vain.  It  was  compelled 


102 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 


to  abandon  its  distribution  of  food  because  tbe  expense  of  transportation  absorbed 
the  greater  part  of  its  resources. 

However,  that  difficulty  being  overcome,  the  “ Progress  Club  ” was  able  to  continue 
its  distribution,  its  work  became  popular,  and  sufficient  resources  from  collections, 
entertainments,  and  subscriptions  even  permitted  the  club  to  extend  its  operation. 

But  other  objects  soon  solicited  the  generosity  of  the  public,  the  receipts  of  the  club 
began  to  diminish,  while  new  extensions  were  demanded,  and  then  it  was  decided 
to  ask  for  pecuniary  assistance  from  the  city. 

At  the  session  of  the  communal  council  of  the  24th  of  December,  1891,  M.  Lemon- 
niers  proposed  to  grant  a subsidy  of  5,000  francs  to  the  “ Progress”  Club. 

The  “ College  tichevinal,”  acting  in  accord  with  the  section  of  public  instruction, 
which  had  deliberated  upon  this  subject  in  the  session  of  the  9th  of  December,  had 
como  to  a conclusion  unfavorable  to  the  grant.  While  acknowledging  the  philan- 
thropic sentiment  which  dictated  the  request  and  the  zeal  of  the  promoters  of  the 
work,  the  college  saw  in  the  grant  the  beginning  of  a constantly  increasing  expendi- 
ture which  would,  before  long,  result  in  an  enormous  charge  for  the  eity. 

Moreover,  notwithstanding  the  explanations  and  circumspection  with  which  the 
vote  for  the  subsidy  was  surrounded,  it  was  a question  of  principle  whether  the  feed- 
ing of  poor  children  was  really  an  obligation  incumbent  upon  the  commune,  and 
whether  it  was  .a  duty  of  the  city  to  maintain  or  develop  works  of  private  philanthropy. 

Nevertheless  the  council  voted  a subsidy  of  5,000  francs,  specifying  that  this  sub- 
sidy was  only  granted  for  one  year,  but  the  apprehension  expressed  in  the  meeting 
of  December  24,  1891,  was  speedily  realized.  The  official  intervention  of  the  city 
gradually  led  to  the  withdrawal  of  private  assistance.  The  proceeds  of  collections, 
gifts,  etc.,  continued  to  diminish,  and  public  feeling,  attracted  by  other  nonsubsi- 
dized  benevolent  undertakings,  was  diverted  from  that  which  official  snpport  seemed 
to  guarantee  against  any  unfortunate  eventuality. 

In  the  session  of  December  18,  1893,  Councilman  Richald  proposed  to  raise  the 
subsidy  for  the  “ Progress”  Club  from  5,000  francs  to  10,000  francs  for  the  school 
soup,  and  to  allot  a supplementary  subsidy  of  5,000  francs  for  clothing. 

The  college  restricted  its  action  to  repeating  the  arguments  of  1891,  and,  after  dis- 
cussion, the  communal  council  adopted  unanimously  the  following  motion,  that 
a commission  be  appointed  to  consist  of  members  of  the  council  and  to  be  elected 
by  it,  to  examine  into  the  condition  of  the  children  who  attend  communal  schools, 
in  regard  to  their  food,  lodging,  and  clothing.  Its  duty  also  was  to  examine 
into  the  financial  outlay  for  furnishing  soup  and  clothing  for  the  school  children. 
This  proposition  having  been  submitted  to  the  section  of  public  charities,  educa- 
tion, and  finances,  this  section,  on  January  15,  1894,  decided  that  the  following 
method  should  be  followed  in  carrying  out  the  investigation  proposed  by  the 
council : 

(u)  A schedule  should  be  forwarded  to  the  principals  of  the  schools,  who,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  teachers,  should  make  returns  upon  the  character  of  the 
clothing,  usual  quality  of  food,  cleanliness,  and  attendance  of  the  scholars. 

(5)  The  city  physicians  should  be  required  to  report  upon  the  health  and  the  suf- 
ficiency or  insufficiency  of  the  usual  food. 

(c)  The  police  should  report  upon  the  character  of  the  lodgings. 

Under  (&)  the  physicians  were  required  to  classify  their  answers:  1,  as  to  health, 
under  the  heads  “good,”  “medium,”  “bad”  ; and,  2,  as  to  nourishment,  under  the 
heads  “sufficient,”  “insufficient.”  As  to  lodgings,  the  following  schedule  was 
adopted : 

What  is  the  number  of  children  sleeping  in  one  bed;  having  no  bed;  sleeping  in 
the  same  room  with  their  parents;  sleeping  in  the  same  bed  with  their  parents; 
sleeping  with  brothers  or  sisters;  brothers  sleeping  with  sisters;  sisters  sleeping 
with  brothers;  sleeping  in  the  kitchen;  sleeping  in  the  cellar  or  basement. 

The  inquiry  extended  to  11,904  pupils  of  the  primary  schools,  and  2,543  pupils  of  the 
kindergarten,  14,447  in  all.  It  was  found  that  2,442  children,  or  16.89  per  cent,  had 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


103 


insufficient  foot  wear;  3;620,  or  25.04  per  cent,  were  ill-clothed,  and  3,6G3,  or  25.35 
per  cent,  were  insufficiently  fed.  The  expense  necessary  to  provide  for  the  wants 
indicated  was  estimated  at  389,000  francs  ($77,800)  a year. 

On  November  24,  1894,  the  results  of  this  inquiry  were  submitted  to  the  sections, 
and  Alderman  Andr6  showed  not  only  the  magnitude  of  the  obligation  which  would 
be  imposed  upon  the  city — an  obligation  out  of  all  proportion  to  its  resources — but 
also  the  insufficiency  of  its  resources.  Experience  shows,  unfortunately,  that  any 
charitable  distribution  immediately  gives  rise  to  crowds  of  petitioners  whose  demands 
it  is  impossible  to  avoid  and  whose  ingenious  combinations  it  is  equally  impossible 
to  baffle.  He  also  objected  to  the  transformation  and  extension  of  the  school  soup 
supply,  the  fear  that  parents  would  become  by  its  means  indifferent  to  their  child- 
ren, and  that  it  would  conduce  to  destroying  the  family  sentiments.  The  real  sub- 
ject for  discussion,  according  to  him,  was  whether  the  commune  ought  to  be  a 
substitute  for  parents  in  clothing  and  feeding  their  children.  Another  member,  M. 
Furnemont,  .after  expressing  his  opinion  that  the  figures  of  the  report  should  be 
verified,  requested  that  an  inquiry  should  be  made  into  similar  organizations  in 
Belgium  and  abroad.  After  much  discussion  the  question  was  adjourned  until  fur- 
ther study  of  the  matter,  especially  abroad,  could  be  made. 

(The  schedule  of  questions  sent  to  foreign  countries  is  given  later  on  in  the  report.) 

We  have  coordinated  the  returns,  although  the  differences  between  the  political 
or  charitable  organizations  of  different  countries  do  not  allow  an  absolutely  exact 
comparison.  Some  general  principles,  however,  are  deduced  from  the  inquiry. 
These  are:  First.  That  nowhere  is  the  right  to  assistance  in  food  and  clothing 
recognized  for  all  pupils.  Second.  That  except  in  France  the  organization  of  assist- 
ance for  poor  pupils  is  everywhere  left  to  private  initiative.  At  Ghent  and  Li6ge 
the  communal  distributions  are  confined  to  kindergartens.  It  is  difficult  to  draw 
auy  conclusions  as  far  as  Brussels  is  concerned,  as  may  be  seen  by  consulting  the 
column  where  the  expense  for  each  city  in  proportion  to  the  population  is  shown. 
But  this  is  explained  by  the  circumstance  that  there  is  no  resemblance  in  the  organi- 
zations of  different  cities,  each  having  its  own.  The  inquiry,  nevertheless,  contains 
some  very  interesting  information.  It  shows  particularly  what  private  initiative 
can  do  when  the  efforts  are  concentrated,  when  the  attention  and  the  sympathy  of 
the  public  are  kept  constantly  awakened,  and  its  generosity  is  exercised  in  favor  of 
well  organized  works  whose  benefits  are  tangible,  evident,  and  publicly  known,  and 
directed  to  those  natural  objects  of  charitable  sympathy— children.  While  in  other 
countries  philanthropic  associations  follow  one  aim  and  adhere  to  it,  endeavoring 
to  establish  a settled  system  of  charitable  work  and  gather  for  it  and  about  it  the 
needed  resources  in  order  to  secure  its  continued  existence  and  prosperity ; our  own 
people  dissipate  their  activity  and  revenues  upon  a multiplicity  of  charities  which 
are  not  related  to  one  another  and  are  successively  taken  up  and  abandoned.  We 
exhaust  our  resources  in  building  up  hastily  devised  organizations  which  are  ill-sus- 
tained, and  when  the  critical  moment  comes,  when  the  obligations  exceed  the  receipts, 
and  the  public,  assailed  and  solicited  on  all  sides,  turns  away  and  forgets  us,  then 
we  endeavor  to  make  the  public  authorities  undertake  the  burden  which  we  had 
rashly  assumed.  Perhaps  we  might  derive  a useful  lesson  from  the  practice  of  other 
countries  in  this  matter. 

The  examination  of  the  situation,  which  the  inquiry  has  revealed,  has  not  altered 
the  opinion  of  the  college  as  to  the  principle  involved  of  the  commune  assuming  the 
obligation  of  supplying  food  and  clothing  to  the  children  attending  the  public 
schools. 

We  wish  to  express  our  appreciation  of  the  generous  ideas  which  have  prompted 
the  charity  of  school  soup  and  clothing,  nor  shall  we  make  difficulties  in  giving  them 
our  individual  support  and,  within  certain  limits,  the  aid  of  the  city,  but  there  is  a 
great  step  from  this  to  transforming  what  is  the  part  of  private  initiative  into  a 
public  service  of  general  obligation. 

The  reason  is  simple.  Where  a private  individual  finds  a person  who  has  met  with 


104 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 


misfortune,  lie  helps  him  to  the  extent  of  his  power  without  stopping  to  inquire 
whether  his  intervention  may  not  have  moral  consequences  which  will  he  unfor- 
tunate for  the  assisted  one.  He  follows  the  impulse  of  his  heart  and  is  otherwise 
free  from  responsibility.  His  charity  may  he  well  or  ill  directed,  hut  he  is  master  of 
his  property  and  may  do  what  he  likes  with  it.  But  the  mission  of  public  authority 
is  different,  and  when  it  is  proposed  to  create  through  it,  in  perpetuity,  a vast  organi- 
zation of  charities,  it  is  its  duty  to  inquire  whether  the  remedy  is  not  worse  than 
the  disease,  whether  the  moral  consequences  of  the  project,  which  are  inevitable, 
will  not  he  disastrous,  and,  in  short,  whether  the  result  will  not  he  diametrically 
opposite  to  what  the  advocates  of  the  new  ideas  expected. 

We.  no  longer  believe  in  the  simple  formulas  which  the  French  revolution  applied 
as  a remedy  to  social  miseries.  A long  and  sad  experience  has  taught  us  that  the 
evangelical  command,  “Feed  those  who  are  hungry  and  clothe  those  who  are 
naked,”  is  not  a solution.  When  we  come  to  discuss  the  evil  effects  of  official 
benevolence,  which  is  inspired  by  the  simple  principle  we  have  pointed  out,  we  come 
to  the  unanimous  conclusion  that,  aside  from  cases  of  accidental  distress,  gratuitous 
assistance  always  ends  in  the  moral  deterioration  of  the  assisted.  It  is  the  extension 
and  revival,  under  a modern  form,  of  the  distribution  of  food  which  the  religious 
orders  used  to  make  every  day  in  former  times,  and  which  resulted  in  the  mainte- 
nance of  whole  communities  in  poverty  and  idleness. 

In  regard  to  the  children  whose  condition  was  found  to  be  precarious,  the  question 
wa3  whether  their  parents  were  to  blame  for  their  poverty  or  not.  It  was  found 
that  most  of  the  children  were  the  victims  of  the  idleness,  debauchery,  and  improvi- 
dence of  their  parents,  or  sometimes  of  the  ignorance  of  housewifery  on  the  part  of 
the  mothers. 

As  far  as  unmerited  poverty  is  concerned,  in  the  case  of  the  children  of  widows  or 
of  persons  temporarily  in  distress  in  consequence  of  stoppage  of  work  or  of  sick- 
ness, it  is  not  only  the  children  who  need  assistance  from  the  public,  but  the  entire 
family,  which  must  be  aided  either  by  providing  work  for  the  father  or  in  supplying 
the  urgent  needs  of  the  family  during  the  critical  period.  The  child  can  receive 
food  and  clothing  at  school,  as  a case  of  urgency,  but  aside  from  such  cases,  school 
aid  will  find  sufficient  resources  in  private  initiative  and  the  charities  it  has  ingeni- 
ously created  and  maintained. 

But  there  is  a further  consideration.  It  is  expected  that  all  the  children  who  shall 
need  or  seem  to  need  assistance  will  be  permanent  beneficiaries.  Is  it  not  obvious 
that  this  is  the  surest  wajr  to  increase  largely  the  number  of  these  children  who  are 
practically  orphans,  although  they  have  parents?  So  that  with  a charitable  object 
in  Ariew,  and  acting  from  sentiment  rather  than  reason,  people  would  sever  the  last 
tie  that  unites  parents  to  their  children,  that  makes  them  sensible  of  the  obligations 
they  have  undertaken,  and  that  removes  the  last  consideration  which  prevents  them 
from  yielding  irrevocably  to  that  base  and  egotistic  conception  of  life  which  leads 
to  idleness  or  drunkenness.  This  condition  has  been  described  by  a French  econo- 
mist as  one  in  which  the  poor  are  put  at  their  casein  their  poverty  instead  of  being 
urged  to  free  themselves  from  it,  and  it  would  be  accentuated  by  the  method  above 
recommended.  Whence  comes  the  obligation  upon  the  public  to  take  the  place  of 
parents  and  replace  with  the  public  funds  those  which  have  been  perverted  to 
debauchery  or  idleness?  It  is  useless  to  urge  that  this  obligation  is  the  same  as  that 
of  public  instruction.  Instruction  is  a great  social  interest  and  something  which 
every  citizen  can  not  provide  for  hi3  children,  aud  therefore  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
public  to  organize  schools  and  facilitate  access  to  them.  But  to  provide  food  and 
clothing  is  not  a part  of  the  public  service,  and  it  can  not  be  seen  that  there  is  any 
obligation  to  provide  for  evident  but  purely  personal  needs  unless  it  can  be  shown 
that  parents  are  absolutely  unable  to  give  their  children  the  necessaries  of  life.  On 
the  contrary,  we  should  strive  to  awaken  the  sense  of  dignity  in  the  man  afflicted 
by  poverty,  urge  him  to  earn  the  assistance  which  is  given  him,  rouse  him  from 
the  demoralizing  acquiescence  in  the  continuance  of  this  assistance,  and  make  him 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


105 


feel  the  spur  of  necessity.  Efforts  should  he  directed  to  avoiding  the  contingencies 
of  unmerited  poverty  by  developing  the  spirit  of  providence,  order,  and  economy, 
and  facilitating  the  practice  of  these  virtues. 

As  to  those  who  remain  refractory  to  all  efforts  to  rouse  them  and  remain  dead  to 
all  moralizing  influences,  what  is  gained  by  aiding  them?  The  money  that  would 
be  thus  retained  from  the  maintenance  of  their  children  would  be  paid  out  for  drink, 
and  thus  the  evils  which  charity,  whether  public  or  private,  engenders  about  us,  in 
spite  of  all  precautions,  would  be  extended. 

It  should  not  be  concluded  from  the  foregoing  that  nothing  should  be  or  has  been 
done,  for  this  would  be  to  forget  the  outburst  of  philanthropy  which  provides  warm 
clothing  for  poor  school  children  every  winter.  The  ladies  of  the  school  associations, 
benevolent  societies,  and  the  young  ladies  of  our  paying  schools  also  make  contri- 
butions. In  the  primary  schools  the  clothing  charities  make  frequent  and  abundant 
distributions  of  clothing,  and  the  members  of  the  teaching  force  in  certain  schools 
have  devoted  the  profits  of  certain  emoluments  to  the  use  of  the  poor  children.  The 
administration  of  charities  has  helped  us  greatly  by  providing  clothing  for  1,435 
children  since  the  1st  of  January.  Finally  the  communal  council  allotted  10,440 
francs  for  the  purchase  of  supplies  for  the  course  of  manual  training  in  girls’  schools, 
and  the  clothing  thus  made  is  distributed  to  the  othe::  needy  school  children.  Nor 
should  we  leave  out  of  account  the  sanitary  inspection  of  the  communal  schools 
which  has  been  initiated  by  a number  of  cities  both  in  Belgium  and  abroad.  Six- 
teen physicians  have  charge  of  the  schools,  each  of  whom  has  to  visit  a certain  num- 
ber of  them  at  least  once  in  ten  days.  The  health  office  has  a check  upon  these  visits 
through  the  thermometric  bulletins  which  the  physicians  are  obliged  to  sign  at  each 
visit.  Children  in  poor  health  take  every  day  a dose  of  cod-liver  oil  or  of  zootrophic 
powder,  which  is  supplied  by  the  public  charities.  These  medicines  are  adminis- 
tered by  the  teachers.  Each  child  has  a glass,  which  is  washed  every  day.  Once  a 
month  the  school  physician  witnesses  the  distribution. 

A dentist  visits  the  schools  every  week  and  attends  to  the  teeth  of  the  children. 

In  1894-95,  3,676  children  were  subjected  to  preventive  treatment  and  at  the  end 
of  the  year  a considerable  improvement  was  observed  in  3,409  cases,  or  92.7  per  cent, 
and  1,292  were  treated  by  the  dentist.  This  shows  services  of  inestimable  value  for 
the  people,  which  could  not,  however,  take  the  form  of  charity,  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  expense,  which  may  be  put  at  10,000  or  11,000  francs  a year,  the  city  did  not 
hesitate  to  organize  and  extend  them.  As  to  food,  the  “ Progress”  Club  organized, 
with  the  help  of  the  city,  a service  for  supplying  a plate  of  hot  soup,  with  bread,  to 
the  children  designated  by  the  teachers.  This  organization,  wherein  private  initia- 
tive plays  the  leading  part,  has  the  great  advantage,  resulting  from  the  very  limita- 
tion of  its  resources,  that  its  extension  beyond  what  is  strictly  useful  is  forbidden, 
whereby  abuses  are  prevented.  We  believe  that  this  organization  will  continue, 
aided  by  the  city,  to  exercise  its  charitable  functions,  possibly  with  some  improve- 
ments in  the  details  of  its  management. 

The  annual  expense  of  distributing  clothing  aud  food  to  all  the  school  children  who 
need  them  would  amount  to  about  389,000  francs  ($77,800),  without  including  certain 
expenses  of  administration,  superintendence,  and  installation.  In  the  session  of 
November  26,  1894,  Councilor  Richald,  on  the  strength  of  figures  supplied  by  the 
president  of  the  “ Progress”  Club,  estimated  that  51,000  francs  ($10,200)  would  be 
sufficient  for  all  needs.  There  is  evidently  here  some  misunderstanding.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  if  it  is  only  a question  of  prolonging  the  service,  as  at  present  organ- 
ized, throughout  the  year,  51,000  francs  would  be  sufficient.  But  the  members  of 
the  council  who  are  in  favor  of  the  organization  of  school  canteens  and  wardrobes 
wish  to  go  much  further  and,  from  their  point  of  view,  they  are  doubtless  right.  The 
allotment  of  51,000  francs  on  the  advice  of  the  “ Progress”  Club  is,  perhaps,  a con- 
cession to  public  sensibility,  but  it  is  only  a partial  solution.  In  fact,  while  the 
soup  does  the  poor  children  good  by  warming  their  stomachs,  it  can  hardly  be  called 
food.  The  stew  which  is  given  them  from  time  to  time  is  more  substantial,  but  even 


106 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

that  does  not  realize  tlie  fall  idea  of  nourishment,  and  no  physician  -would  say  that 
it  does.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  parents  who  use  these  distributions  as  a pre- 
text for  not  giving  their  children  anything  to  eat  at  noon.  Physicians  declare  that 
every  child  who  does  not  eat  meat  or  eggs  four  times  a week  is  insufficiently 
nourished. 

The  discussion  as  to  school  nourishment  has  been  carried  to  high  ground,  so  as 
to  cover  the  future  of  the  nation  and  the  conservation  of  the  species.  Now  if  we 
start  upon  this  ground,  it  is  no  longer  soup  alone  which  must  be  furnished,  but  a 
nourishment  sufficient  to  make  up  for  the  insufficiency  of  the  family  food,  in  which 
case  389,000  francs  would  doubtless  be  needed  to  defray  all  expenses  on  that  score. 

This  expenditure  does  not  include  bedding,  which  is  a more  difficult  question. 
Poor  people  crowd  together,  and  the  want  of  bedding  is  very  often  not  due  to  their 
poverty  so  much  as  the  want  of  space.  It  would  be  useless  to  give  them  beds  and 
mattresses  since  they  would  have  no  place  to  put  them.  No  estimate  can  be  made 
upon  this  point. 

Questions  of  the  kind  before  us  should  be  examined  dispassionately,  avoiding  as 
much  as  possible  all  appeal  to  the  sensibilities.  The  inquiry  requested  by  the  coun- 
cil has  been  carried  out  as  loyally  and  completely  as  possible,  and  it  has  now  been 
informed  upon  the  different  points  raised  in  the  interrogatory  which  was  sent  out. 
It  knows  the  needs  and  the  cost.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  inquiry  was 
limited  to  children  attending  the  communal  schools,  and  thatthe  reasons  for  providing 
school  canteens  and  wardrobes  for  these  children  apply  as  well  to  those  who  attend 
other  schools  and  those  who  do  not  go  to  school  at  all.  The  number  of  children  of 
school  age  is  about  27,000,  or  nearly  double  the  number  of  those  attending  the  com- 
munal schools.  Taking  the  same  proportion,  we  should  have  an  expenditure  of 
nearly  800,000  francs  ($160,000)  if  the  remaining  children  were  to  receive  the  benefit 
of  the  food  and  clothing  distribution.  We  have  already  answered  the  question 
whether  the  city  ought  to  bear  this  expense,  and  an  examination  of  the  budget  will 
show  that  it  can  not  bear  it.  It  is,  of  course,  desirable  to  relieve  or  suppress  the  mis- 
eries of  poor  children,  but  where  could  the  city  get  the  funds  for  such  an  object  ? 
There  are  many  good  purposes  for  which  money  is  wanting,  and  there  are  no  means 
of  getting  it.  The  financial  conditions  of  the  administration  of  large  cities  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  complex  and  difficult,  while  the  demands  upon  the  duties  of  the 
commune  are  augmenting  every  day. 

But  the  public  energetically  resists  every  contribution  which  is  asked  from  it  in 
exchange  for  the  service  it  recei  ves,  and  the  communal  resources  are  based,  in  fact, 
upon  special  services  which  are  essentially  uncertain  in  their  nature.  It  therefore 
seems  preferable  to  continue  to  provide  for  the  most  pressing  needs  with  the  assist- 
ance of  public  charity  and  that  of  benevolent  individuals.  To  propose  to  create 
vast  services  of  charity  and  not  be  able  to  carry  them  out  for  want  of  funds  is  to 
arousb  hopes  which  can  not  be  realized  and  make  the  poor  feel  still  more  keenly  the 
extent  of  their  poverty.  Besides,  we  repeat,  this  course  favors  improvidence,  vice, 
and  idleness,  and  encourages  the  unworthy  to  amass  themselves  around  those  who 
are  temporarily  and  unmeritedly  in  want. 

As  a general  rule  no  gifts  should  be  gratuitous,  but  all  assistance  should  be  paid 
for  by  work  when  the  man  is  well.  Every  other  form  of  charity  degrades  a man  and 
perpetuates  lii3  poverty  and  that  of  his  children.  The  necessity  of  working  for  their 
children  is  with  many  the  last  guaranty  of  the  preservation  of  personal  dignity  and 
the  highest  prompting  of  conscience  toward  work  and  sobriety.  It  does  not  do  to 
cheapen  this  condition  of  mind,  and  on  this  point  we  can  repeat  the  words  of  M. 
Paulian  in  his  work  on  poverty,  “ A benefit  wrongly  bestowed  is  a wrong.” 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM.  107 

The  summary  of  the  results  of  the  investigation  for  communal  schools  is  as  follows : 

Total  number  of  pupils  attending  the  primary  schools 11, 904 

Number  wearing  wooden  shoes 2,  347 

Number  wearing  leather  shoes 8,  536 

Number  wearing  slippers 187 

Number  wearing  other  footwear 834 

With  insufficient  footwear 1,  910 

Number  whose  shoes  are  satisfactory 9,  994 

Number  who  are  habitually  neatly  and  cleanly  clothed 10, 438 

Number  of  those  whose  clothing  is  habitually  dirty  and  untidy 1,  466 

Number  of  those  who  receive  clothing  from  charitable  sources 2, 187 

Number  who  should  receive  such  on  account  of  their  habitual  condition 2,  783 

Children  who  habitually  come  to  school  dirty  (face,  hair,  hands,  neck) 876 

Number  who  are  bathed  all  over  at  least  ten  times  a year 5,  577 

Number  who  take  foot  baths  at  least  once  a week 9,  086 

Number  who  wash  the  entire  body  once  a week 8,  234 

Number  who  have  no  pocket  handkerchief 1, 924 

Number  who  take  the  noon  soup  provided  for  the  school 3, 109 

Number  who  appear  to  be  insufficiently  fed 2, 120 

KINDERGARTENS. 

Total  number  of  pupils 2,  543 

Number  with  wooden  shoes 392 

Number  with  leather  shoes 1,  925 

Number  with  slippers 51 

Number  who  have  other  kinds  of  shoes 175 

Number  who  are  ill  furnished 532 

Number  who  are  sufficiently  furnished 2,  011 

Number  whose  clothing  is  habitually  clean  and  neat 2,  090 

Number  whose  clothing  is  dirty  and  slovenly 453 

Number  who  receive  clothing  from  a charity 1,  215 

Number  who  ought  to  receive  it  from  charity 837 

Number  who  come  to  school  habitually  dirty  (face,  hair,  hands,  neck) 212 

Number  who  take  baths  at  least  ten  times  a year 1, 204 

Number  who  take  foot  baths  at  least  once  a week . 1,  898 

Number  who  take  baths  every  week 2,  009 

Number  who  have  no  pocket  handkerchief 492 

Number  who  take  the  noon  soup  provided  for  the  schools 860 

Number  who  appear  to  be  insufficiently  fed 354 

LODGING,  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 

Children  sleeping  alone 10,  543 

Having  no  bed 538 

Sleeping  in  the  same  room  -with  their  jiarents 5, 635 

Sleeping  in  the  same  bed  with  their  parents •. z 590 

Brothers  sleeping  with  sisters 578 

Sleeping  in  the  kitchen 2,  608 

Sleeping  in  a cellar  or  basement 99 

KINDERGARTENS. 

Sleeping  alone 2,  031 

Without  bod 146 

Sleeping  in  the  same  room  with  parents 1, 526 

Sleeping  in  the  same  bed  with  parents 165 

Sleeping  with  brothers 688 

Sleeping  with  sisters 649 

Sleeping  in  the  kitchen 686 

Sleeping  in  the  basement  or  cellar 11 


108 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

NOURISHMENT,  MEDICAL  INQUIRY. 


Primary 

schools. 

Kinder- 

gartens. 

Number  of  pupils  whose  health  i3  habitually — 

Good 

8,410 
2,  231 
963 

1,  801 
522 
202 

Medium  

Bad 

Total 

11,  604 
9,  042 
2,  513 

2,  525 
1.862 
663 

"With  sufficient  nourishment . 

"With  insufficient  nourishment _ 

Total........ 

11,  555 

2,  525 

The  physicians  state  that  these  statistics  are  not  of  the  highest  value  in  the  case 
of  the  kindergartens,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  obtaining  reliable  information 
as  to  the  nourishment  either  from  the  children  themselves  or  the  teachers.  As  to 
health,  they  depended  on  absences  for  sickness,  the  nature  of  the  maladies,  and  the 
constitutional  condition  of  the  children.  As  to  nourishment,  they  deemed  a child 
insufficiently  fed  who  did  not  have  meat  or  eggs  at  least  four  times  a week. 


Distribution  of  school  soup  in  Brussels. 


Period  of  distribu- 
tion. 

(Nov.  to  Mar.  1.) 

Number  of 
distribu- 
tions. 

Total 

expense. 

Hem  arks. 

1888-89 

110,661 
185,  640 

299,  359 
274, 328 
289,  363 
248, 666 
253, 090 

$811.  83 

2.  188.  86 

3, 120.  05 

2,  898.  28 

3,  963.  54 
2,711.  56 
2,  618.  79 

Ordinary  soup  of  the  cooperative  society. 

Special  soup  prepared  for  the  children.  Stew  twice  a 
week. 

From  1892  each  child  receives  one  ration  of  bread. 

1889-90 

1890- 91 

1891- 92 

1892  93 

1893-94 

1894-95 

In  1890-91  the  soup  was  distributed  during  seventeen  weeks  at  an  average  cost  of  $189.40  per  week. 
In  1891-92,  seventeen  weeks,  average  $190.40  per  week.  In  1892-93,  fifteen  weeks,  at  $264.20  per  week. 
In  1893-91,  thirteen  weeks,  at  $206  per  week.  The  bread  rations  amounted  to  4,725  pounds  in  all.  In 
1894-95,  sixteeu  weeks,  averaging  $165.60  per  week;  bread  4,902  pounds. 

The  Progress  Club  receives  annually — 


First.  From  the  city $1,  000 

Second.  From  the  committee  on  markets 600 


The  balance  of  the  cost  is  paid  by  members  of  the  club. 


Wants  for  tvliich  provision  should  be  made. 


1,910>  2,442  children  with  bad  shoes  who  ought  to  have  one  pair  of  galoches  each  in  winter, 

532/  at  40  cents $976.  80 

2,T83i 

3,620  children  poorly  clothed,  each  of  whom  should  have  one  suit  a year,  at  $2 - 7,  240. 00 

2,513a 

3,176  children  insufficiently  fed1  69,  554.40 


77, 771.  20 

The  report  continues  with  tables  showing  the  number  of  distributions  of  food  and 
clothing  to  pupils  of  the  primary  schools  and  kindergartens  in  various  other  cities 
in  Belgium,  France,  Holland,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzerland,  giving  the  source 
of  the  assistance,  whether  public  or  private,  and  the  cost. 


1 If  only  one  meal  is  given  at  noon,  the  expense  would  be  one-half  this  sum,  or  $34,777.20. 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


109 


Table  of  sums  distributed  for  food  and  clothing  of  poor  children  in  the  primary  schools  and 
kindergartens  indifferent  cities. 


Cities. 

Population. 

School 

popula- 

tion. 

Number 
of  pupils 
aided. 

Total 

amount 

expended. 

Mean  per 
inhabit- 
ant. 

Mean 

per 

pupil. 

Cities  tvhere  aid  is  given  to  necedy  pupils 
without  their  request. 

Ghent 

155,  746 

14,  446 

1,  9C0 

$2,  280 

$0. 017 

$0. 158 

Bordeaux 

252, 102 

18. 000 

3,  600 

6,  000 

.024 

.333 

Rotterdam 

272, 042 

13,  900 

3,  500 

3,  440 

.013 

.247 

Berlin 

1,  820,  340 

183,  633/ 

3,  500 
7,  500 

2, 051\ 
25, 051/ 

.015 

.158 

Dresden 

320,  GOO 

30,  000 

300 

750 

.002 

.025 

Vienna 

1,  495,  764 

162,  786 

13,  097 

71,  404 

.048 

.439 

Cities  where  aid  is  given  to  needy  chil- 
dren at  the  request  of  parents. 

Antwerp 

256,  000 

«18,  244 

550 

3,  200 

.012 

.175 

Paris 

2,  424,  000 

143,  554 

17,  263 

161,000 

.066 

1. 120 

Lyons 

438,  077 

21,  500 

8,  000 

12,  000 

.027 

.558 

Lille 

200,  325 

17,  300 

11,000 

11,800 

.057 

.658 

Ronbaix 

115,  390 

12,  983 

10, 125 

13,  533 

.115 

1.671 

Marseilles 

406,  919 

25, 605 

3, 400 
600 

4,  753 

.011 

.185 

Barmen 

128,  129 

22, 656 

3,  750 

.029 

.165 

Geneva 

80,  111 

a 3,  664 

330 

1,  650 

.021 

.445 

Zurich 

126,  497 

a 10, 171 

161 

292 

.002 

.028 

City  where  assistance  is  given  partly  to 
all  pupils  and  where  needy  children 
alone  receive  the  other  part. 

Liege 

160, 841 

16,040 

6,  891 

6,  720 

[ 

.042 

.41 

a Primary  schools  only. 


The  report  gives  the  following  information,  concerning  the  organizations  of  the 
charities  for  poor  school  children  of  the  official  schools  in  the  various  cities  mentioned : 


1.  Cities  where  assistance  is  given  to  needy  children  only , without  their  request. 

BELGIUM. 

Ghent. — Children  attending  the  dcoles  gardiennes,  whose  parents  request  it,  may- 
stay  at  the  school  all  day  and  receive  one  ration  of  soup  at  noon.  The  number  of 
such  children  diminishes  in  proportion  as  the  schools  multiply  and  are  nearer  the 
homes  of  the  children. 

FRANCE. 

Bordeaux. — Food  and  clothing  arc  supplied  by  socidtds  de  patronage.  Some  schools 
only  receive  food.  For  the  dcoles  maternelles  there  are  ladies’  committees,  who 
make  the  clothing. 

HOLLAND. 

Botterdam. — Food  was  first  supplied  to  school  children  in  1885  by  a private  individ- 
ual, M.  Koenc,  who  boro  all  the  expenses  of  this  charity  until  1891.  The  number  of 
children  increasing  from  year  to  year  and  M.  Koene  no  longer  being  able  to  supply  all 
the  wants,  two  friends  of  his  joined  him  in  the  work,  the  value  of  which  is  now 
recognized,  and  it  receives  donations  from  all  sides.  The  city  provides  the  rooms. 
M.  Koene  and  his  friends  also  distributed  clothing  to  needy  children;  but  a society 
having  been  formed  in  1893  for  the  distribution  of  clothing,  the  first  company  only 
attends  to  the  food. 

GERMANY. 

Berlin. — The  Yerein  fiir  Kindervolksldichen,  which  is  not  subsidized  by  the  city, 
furnished  500,000  complete  meals  in  1894,  the  first  year  of  its  existence.  If  we  suppose 
that  the  distribution  only  took  place  in  the  winter  months,  or  for  125  days,  and  that 
the  cost  per  meal  was  5 cents,  this  society  must  have  fed  4,000  children  and  paid  out 


110 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 


$25,000.  The  money  for  this  purpose  is  derived  from  interest  of  endowments  admin- 
istered by  the  city,  subscriptions  from  charitable  clubs,  and  appropriations  made  by 
the  city. 

AUSTRIA. 

Vienna. — The  distribution  of  food  is  carried  out  by  a society  which  has  its  office 
at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and  is  administered  by  a commission  of  30  members,  8 of 
whom  are  delegates  from  the  communal  council.  Its  bank  deposit  is  supplied  by  an 
annual  subsidy  of  $10,000  from  the  city,  by  legacies,  gifts,  and  assessments  upon  its 
members.  The  receipts  from  these  last  three  sources  amounted  to  $6,906  in  1893-94, 
of  which  $2,681  was  added  to  the  reserve  fund,  which  amounts  to  $54,875,  producing 
an  annual  revenue  of  $2,655.  The  expense  of  the  distribution  for  1893-94  was 
$14,623.50.  The  society  appoints  a local  committee  in  each  quarter,  whose  duty  is  to 
make  inquiries  and  superintend  the  distributions. 

In  Vienna  there  are  creches,  £coles  gardiennes,  and  kindergartens.  The  first  two 
are  attended  only  by  children  of  the  ’working  classes,  while  the  kindergartens  have 
pupils  from  the  well  to  do.  In  the  creches  and  in  certain  dcoles  gardiennes  all  the 
pupils  are  fed  free  of  expense.  In  the  other  £coles  gardiennes  food  is  only  supplied 
gratis  to  those  pupils  who  do  not  go  home  at  noon.  The  same  is  true  in  certain 
official  kindergartens.  The  city  grants  an  appropriation  for  these  schools. 

All  indigent  children  can  participate  in  the  gratuitous  distribution  of  clothing 
without  the  necessity  of  going  to  school  for  that  purpose. 

Orphans  or  abandoned  children  committed  by  the  city  to  foster  fathers  get  their 
clothing  from  them.  If  they  can  not  furnish  it,  they  can  obtain  it  from  the  commit- 
tee on  charities,  on  proper  representation,  the  funds  coming  from  legacies,  orphans’ 
banks,  subscriptions,  etc.  Funds  for  supplying  clothing  in  winter  through  local  com- 
mittees come  from  similar  sources  and  from  appropriations  to  each  committee  by 
the  communal  administration.  This  appropriation  amounts  to  $8,000. 

2.  Cities  where  indigent  children  receive  aid  at  the  request  of  their  parents. 

BELGIUM. 

Antwerp. — All  children  in  the  kindergartens  participate  in  the  distribution  of 
soup,  and  pay  at  the  rate  of  1 cent  per  plate  when  the  cost  is  l-£  cents.  In  1893 
the  total  expense  for  kindergartens  was  $8,400,  while  the  children  paid  $7,000.  The 
expense  is  borne  by  the  bureau  of  charities.  Clothing  is  supplied  by  private 
societies. 

FRANCE. 

Paris. — The  law  of  1882  affecting  public  instruction  made  it  obligatory  upon  the 
communes  to  establish  one  or  more  school  banks,  whose  funds  are  supplied  by  the 
city,  the  department,  and  the  State,  together  with  private  gifts.  Their  object  is  to 
furnish  assistance  of  all  kinds  to  indigent  children — clothing,  shoes,  food,  school 
books,  financial  aid,  school  colonies.  The  school  banks  of  Paris  possess  a large 
reserve  fund.  In  1892  their  receipts  proper  amounted  to  $232,553,  besides  grants 
from  the  conseil  general,  the  municipality,  and  the  Government.  Their  expenses 
during  the  same  period  were  $379,216,  only  a very  small  portion  of  which  was 
devoted  to  food.  In  1893  the  contribution  of  the  school  banks  to  the  school  canteens 
amounted  to  only  $1,500. 

The  food  is  distributed  by  the  school  canteens,  and  is  free  for  poor  children.  Chil- 
dren who  are  able  to  pay  can  get  a complete  meal  for  2 or  3 cents,  the  net  cost 
being  5 or  6 cents.  The  school  canteens  are  administered  by  the  commission  of  school 
banks. 

Lyons. — Food  is  furnished  by  the  school  canteens,  which  are  under  the  direction  of 
the  municipal  authorities.  These  canteens  furnish  meals  for  tickets,  which  are  sup- 
plied gratis  to  needy  children  and  sold  at  3 cents  each  to  those  who  can  afford  to  pay 
for  them. 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


Ill 


Lille. — The  city  only  subsidizes  the  school  bank.  Some  societies  have  organized 
canteens  for  primary  schools. 

Rouhaix. — The  distribution  of  food  and  clothing  is  made  by  the  school  bank. 
The  pupils  of  the  primary  schools  receive  no  food  yet,  but  will  soon  participate  in 
the  distribution. 

Alarseilles. — The  food  is  distributed  in  the  school  canteens,  which  also  sell  it  at  a 
low  price  to  nonindigent  children.  Clothing  is  distributed  by  the  school  bank. 

GERMANY. 


Barmen. — Most  of  the  money  for  food  and  clothing  for  poor  children  comes  from 
private  sources. 


SWITZERLAND. 


Geneva. — There  is  no  central  committee.  The  first  kitchens  were  established  in  1887 
by  a private  society,  which  superintended  the  distribution.  Owing  to  the  inconven- 
ience of  attending  to  this  work — which  often  required  going  some  distance — and  the 
increase  in  the  work  itself,  it  was  finally  turned  over  to  independent  local  committees. 

3.  Cities  where  aid  is  given  in  part  to  all  the  pupils,  the  indigent  alone  receiving  the  other 

part. 

BELGIUM. 

Liege. — Gratuitous  distribution  of  food  to  the  children  of  kindergartens  has  been 
going  on  for  more  than  forty  years.  All  children  of  these  schools  can  participate 
in  it.  Clothing  is  only  given  to  the  needy  children  who  are  designated  by  the 
head  teachers.  The  city  lends  the  poor  children  cloaks  for  the  winter,  which  must  bo 
returned  at  the  close  of  the  season.  There  is  besides  a distribution  of  clothing  by  a 
society,  “Le  vestiaire  liberal,”  which  distributed  3,558  articles  (shoes,  trousers,  shirts, 
etc.)  in  1893-94  at  a cost  of  $1,900. 

In  all  the  preceding  cases  the  distribution  requires  some  formality,  such  as  request, 
authorization  by  the  committees,  etc. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS — RECENT  CHANGES  IN  THE  CURRICULUM. 

In  bis  report  for  the  triennial  period  1891-1893  the  minister  of  public 
instruction  considers  the  effect  of  the  changes  introduced  into  the  public 
secondary  schools  of  Belgium  by  a decree  of  1888.  The  matter  is  an 
interesting  contribution  to  the  general  discussions  of  secondary  educa- 
tion now  going  on  in  all  the  leading  countries  of  Europe.  This  portion 
of  the  minister’s  report  is  here  cited : 

ROYAL  ATHfiNEES  (SECONDARY  SCHOOLS). 

During  the  triennial  period  1891-1893  the  organization,  established  by  royal  decree 
of  the  30th  of  August,  1888,  taking  the  place  of  that  of  the  30tli  of  June,  1881,  was 
applied  successively  to  the  fourth,  third,  and  second  classes,  so  that  at  the  end  of 
that  period  only  pupils  in  ancient  and  modern  humanities  of  the  class  of  rhetoric 
were  still  under  the  regime  of  the  decree  of  1881.' 


1 By  this  order  the  ath^ndes  are  now  organized  in  three  sections : Section  of  ancient 
humanities,  including  both  Greek  and  Latin;  section  including  Latin  only;  and  the 
section  of  modern  humanities,  having  neither  Latin  nor  Greek.  There  are  seven 
classes  in  each  section,  the  seventh  or  lowest  being  in  a sense  preparatory;  the 
highest  class  is  the  first  or  rhetoric.  The  section  of  modern  humanities  divides  after 
the  fourth  class,  and  has  two  divisions  in  each  of  the  following  classes — the  scien- 
tific and  the  commercial. 


112 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 


The  vote  on  the  law  of  superior  instruction,  and  the  decree  issued  in  conformity 
with  the  advice  of  the  u Council  for  the  improvement  of  superior  instruction,” 
making  Greek  compulsory  upon  students  who  are  destined  for  medicine,  prohibits 
the  division  of  the  Latin  section  into  a scientific  section,  and  a section  of  natural 
sciences  in  any  class  above  the  third. 

The  Latin  section  includes  only  students  pursuing  the  mathematical  studies  neces- 
sary for  entering  special  schools.  It  has  not  been  possible  to  allow  students  pre- 
paring for  medicine  to  pursue  the  course  of  chemistry,  which  would,  however,  much 
facilitate  their  studies  for  candidacy  in  natural  sciences. 

Condition  of  studies. — In  a general  report  to  tho  Government  the  supervisor  of 
intermediate  instruction  describes  the  situation  as  to  the  progress  of  studies  as 
follows : 

“Although  it  will  not  be  possible  before  the  close  of  the  school  year  1893-94  to 
estimate  the  results  obtained  in  the  class  of  rhetoric  under  tho  new  programme,  and 
to  decide  if  it  was  well  to  substitute  it  for  that  of  1881,  yet  it  may  bo  said  that 
experience  during  the  last  six  years  justifies  favorable  expectations. 

“ If  tho  programme  of  1888  does  not  realize  perfection  (and  what  part  of  the  pro- 
gramme of  studies  may  not  be  criticised  with  more  or  less  reason?),  it  has  made 
improvements  in  several  respects,  namely : Diminution  of  the  number  of  obligatory 
modern  languages;  change  in  the  number  of  hours  assigned  to  different  studies; 
branches  distributed  .through  a greater  number  of  years;  the  humanities  better 
divided;  Flemish  made  as  important  as  French;  the  study  of  Greek  made  more 
serious  and  connected  with  only  one  division  of  humanities;  separation  reestab- 
lished and  made  more  radical  between  secondary  instruction  of  the  higher  degree  and 
that  of  the  lower  degree  (enseignement  moyen  de  degre  superieur  et  l’enseignement 
moyen  de  degrd  inferieur).” 

Improvement  resulting  from  these  different  changes  is  now  quite  manifest. 

Latin. — Although  Latin  is  taught  at  present  for  seven  years,  when  it  might  be 
learned  in  five  years  under  the  regime  of  the  law  of  1881,  it  is  given  fewer  hours 
than  before — fifty- three  instead  of  fifty-six.  Tho  highest  maximum  for  Latin  is 
eight  hours  a week;  in  the  sixth  class  it  has  seven  hours,  and  in  the  seventh  class 
six  hours. 

It  was  found  that  the  twelve  hours  for  Latin  which  might  be  assigned  to  poetry 
and  rhetoric  were  too  many;  that  it  was  very  difficult  for  professors  to  vary  exer- 
cises sufficiently  to  hold  the  students’  attention  so  long.  The  time  and  the  pro- 
gramme as  now  existing  are  more  favorable  to  the  study  of  Latin;  however,  the 
results  of  the  “concours”  (competitive  examination)  do  not  yet  allow  us  to  say  how 
great  a change  has  been  produced.  Yet  there  is  no  need  of  haste  in  judging  the 
new  programme,  whose  working  has  been  attended  by  certain  difficulties;  in  effect, 
without  sensibly  increasing  tho  personnel,  it  lias  been  necessary  to  create  two  new 
classes — the  seventh  and  sixth  of  the  ancient  humanities. 

In  the  athenees  where  the  seventh  and  sixth  classes  were  doubled  one  of  the  sec- 
tions has  become  the  section  of  Latin  and  the  other  that  of  modern  humanities.  In 
tho  other  athenees  one  of  the  two  professors  of  the  seventh  and  the  sixth  has  been 
assigned  for  the  instruction  in  Latin  in  both  classes,  the  other  to  French.  This 
arrangement  presents  the  inconvenience  of  joining,  for  instruction  in  French,  two 
classes  of  different  preparation,  for  whom  the  course  in  French  should  be  differently 
taught.  The  change  in  the  duties  of  professors  has  also  proved  unfortunate;  a 
professor  assigned  to  a new  course  necessarily  needs  time  to  ascertain  how  to  make 
bis  instruction  profitable.  Furthermore,  from  the  fact  that  students  of  the  class  of 
rhetoric  do  not  appear  to  have  a more  thorough  acquaintance  with  Latin  than  their 
schoolmates  of  the  lower  classes,  it  would  be  rash  to  conclude  that  tho  new  pro- 
gramme does  not  contribute  to  increase  the  force  of  studies. 

The  last  “concours”  (competitive  examination)  showed  sensible  progress  in 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


m 


translating,  yet  there  is  mucli  to  gain;  the  Latin  theme  (translation  into  Latin)  in 
the  superior  class  of  the  ath6n£e  is  still  defective.  * * * 

Greek. — Before  1888  Greek  was  taught  four  years,  and  its  study  began  in  the  fourth 
Latin.  Six  hours  a week  were  given  to  Latin  and  Greek  humanities;  in  Latin 
humanities,  for  students  who  aspired  to  special  schools  and  a doctorate  in  physical 
and  mathematical  sciences,  the  study  of  Greek  was  obligatory  in  the  fourth  and 
optional  in  the  three  higher  classes. 

In  Latin  humanities,  for  students  destined  for  natural  sciences  and  medicine,. 
Greek  was  obligatory  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  classes  and  optional  in  the  two  higher. 

Under  the  programme  of  1888  Greek  is  taught  only  in  Greek-Latin  humanities. 
The  study  commences  in  the  fifth  class  and  continues  five  years  at  the  rate  of  five> 
hours  a week,  thus  making  twenty-five  hours  instead  of  twenty-four. 

The  new  programme  is  more  favorable  to  Greek  than  the  old,  because  the  subject 
is  distributed  over  five  years  instead  of  four,  and  begins  two  years  after  Latin. 

In  the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  there  has  been  a question  of  making  trial  of  the» 
inductive  method;  but  before  coming  to  a decision  the  Government  ordered  an 
examination  of  the  inductive  method  of  Halle  in  the  monthly  conferences  of  the- 
atlienees.  Opinions  were  divided,  but  the  unfavorable  were  the  most  numerous. 
Nevertheless,  a professor  of  the  athfnde  has  been  charged  to  make  trial  of  that 
method  for  two  years,  with  Greek  in  the  fifth  and  fourth  classes. 

Results  in  Greek  vary  much  with  different  professors.  In  the  athdn^es,  where- 
professors  of  rhetoric  seek  to  enable  studeifts  to  translate  at  sight  certain  authors 
more  or  less  easy,  the  result  is  far  from  being  uniform,  and  it  is  to  be  remarked  that 
if  under  the  old  system  good  professors  receiving  in  the  class  of  rhetoric  scholars 
already  well  prepared,  did  not  expound  to  them  a complete  oration  of  Demosthenes,, 
nor  the  Crito  of  Plato,  nor  an  entire  tragedy  of  Euripides,  nevertheless,  by  numer- 
ous extracts,  by  happy  choice  of  dictated  passages  for  translation,  they  succeeded 
in  imparting  to  young  men  incipient  acquaintance  with  the  principal  examples  of 
Greek  literature.  . 

French. — The  programme  of  1881  assigned  to  French  twenty-six  hours;  that  of  1888, 
twenty-eight,  distributed  as  follows : Seven  hours  in  the  seventh  class,  six  hours  in  the- 
sixth,  and  three  in  each  of  the  five  higher  classes,  which  before  that  had  only  two- 
hours  a week;  this  was  too  little.  The  authors  of  the  programme  supposed  that- 
exercise  in  translation  would  contribute  to  the  study  of  French,  but  that  exercise, 
though  done  with  greatest  care,  could  not  do  so,  nor  even  serve  to  impart  acquaint- 
ance with  the  principles  of  literature,  and  time  was  lacking  for  reading  and  com- 
menting upon  authors. 

The  study  of  French,  therefore,  has  been  reenforced  in  raising  from  two  to  three= 
the  hours  per  week  assigned  to  it  in  the  higher  classes. 

Before  1888  literary  branches  were  rather  neglected,  and  the  useful  were  in  too 
much  favor.  There  was  a sort  of  apathy  in  the  matter  of  literature.  It  was  easy  to 
recommend  reading  at  home,  but  few  pupils  had  the  time  for  that. 

To-day  the  programme  is  less  crowded  and  literary  taste  is  perceptibly  rising. 
However,  it  is  well  to  avoid  going  to  an  extreme  by  confining  the  lower  classes? 
exclusively  to  the  literary  analysis  of  French  authors. 

The  study  of  grammar  in  these  classes  is  of  highest  importance,  but  it  is  a mis- 
take to  make  the  exercise  of  reading  simply  the  occasion  for  grammatical  theories. 
Only  the  explanations  are  desirable  which  serve  to  elucidate  the  text.  * * * 

History  and  geography. — Under  this  head  the  report  says  that  the  former  programme, 
being  found  fully  satisfactory,  has  been  continued. 

The  following  brief  paragraphs  are  interesting: 

A sensible  difference  has  been  shown  between  results  in  the  two  rhetorics.  Pupils 
in  that  of  modern  humanities  are  quite  superior  to  their  fellows  in  ancient.  This 
can  be  attributed  to  nothing  else  than  the  importance  attached  to  history  and  geog- 
raphy in  examinations  for  the  military  schools. 

ED  9!) 8 


114 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 


Tli©  jury  charged  with  the  correction  of  examinations  in  history  have  found  that 
answers  made  in  Flemish  were  much  more  correct  than  those  made  in  French.  In 
many  of  the  latter  the  precise  word  is  often  wanting.  That  difference  arises  from 
the  fact  that  a goodly  number  of  Flemish  pupils  render  their  answers  in  French, 
when  tli©  course  has  been  given  in  Flemish.  . * * * 

Germanic,  language. — The  programme  of  1881  imposed  too  many  languages.  Pupils 
in  the  fifth  class  had  five,  those  in  the  fourth,  six.  It  was  too  much  to  exact  of 
children  of  thirteen  and  fourteen  years,  who,  with  very  rare  exceptions,  can  derive 
but  little  benefit  from  such  superabundance  of  school  work. 

All  these  languages  continue  to  figure  in  the  programme  of  1888, but  they  have  ceased 
to  be  compulsory.  It  might  be  supposed  that  the  majority  of  pupils  would  content 
themselves  with  studying  obligatory  languages,  leaving  the  best  endowed  to  follow 
optional  courses;  there  has  been  nothing  of  this,  and  the  majority  would  prefer  to 
continue  the  study  of  all  languages,  notwithstanding  the  futility  of  their  efforts. 

In  order  to  prevent  mediocre  students  from  wasting  their  time  in  such  work  it  has 
been  decided  that  only  those  who  have  obtained  0.6  of  the  total  points  allowed  for 
compulsory  languages  should  be  permitted  to  study  the  optional  languages. 

In  the  scientific  section  the  courses  of  modern  languages  have  an  importance 
which  is  quite  different  from  that  accorded  to  them  in  examinations  for  admission 
into  special  schools.  The  student  who  presents  French  needs  to  have  studied  but 
one  more  language — Flemish,  German,  English,  or  Latin;  while  in  the  scientific  sec- 
tion of  the  athen^es,  to  be  in  regular  standing,  he  must  have  studied  two  of  these 
languages,  and  the  passage  from  one  class  to  another  is  not  allowed  unless  progress 
in  the  two  other  languages  besides  French  is  satisfactory. 

German. — The  general  “ concours  ” (examination)  justifies  the  statement  that  in 
the  athen<$es  instruction  in  modern  language  is  A ery  thorough.  The  results  have 
been  satisfactory  in  the  two  rhetorics,  and  especially  so  in  the  classes  under  the 
programme  of  1888.  These  results  will  be  further  emphasized  hereafter  if  greater 
importance  is  attached  to  grammar. 

At  the  request  of  the  ath<5n<5e  d’Arion  there  has  been  organized  a special  “ con- 
cours ” for  German.  Work  presented  by  contestants  has  been  weak,  below  that  of 
the  ordinary  “ concours  ” in  that  language.  The  distinctions  were  nearly  all  won 
by  German  students  not  belonging  to  the  German  region  of  the  country. 

English. — Results  in  the  English  language  have  been  inferior  to  those  in  German. 

Mathematics. — In  the  preceding  report  the  Government  put  forth  some  rather 
important  changes  in  the  programme  of  mathematics,  so  as  to  render  the  study  more 
simple  and  attractive,  especially  for  students  in  Greek-Latin  humanities,  and  dimin- 
ished the  number,  entirely  too  large,  of  those  Avho  finish  their  studies  without 
knowing,  so  to  speak,  anything  about  mathematics,  or  having  only  too  incomplete 
acquaintance  to  derive  any  benefit  from  it  hereafter. 

Important  progress  has  been  made  in  the  study  of  algebra.  Instead  of  devoting 
numerous  lessons  to  algebraic  operations  which  discourage  pupils  by  their  difficul- 
ties, professors  require  students  to  solve  and  discuss  problems,  an  exercise  particu- 
larly Avell  adapted  to  awaken  the  intelligence  of  pupils  and  stimulate  their  endeavors. 

The  change  of  method  met  with  some  opposition,  but  results  obtained  by  those 
who  unhesitatingly  adopted  the  new  methods  have  led  others  to  leave  off  old  errors 
and  recognize  that,  for  students  in  the  Greco-Latin  sections,  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics is  only  a means  of  developing  their  understanding  and  li$s  not  the  purpose 
of  imparting  determinate  knowledge. 

Pupils  on  leaving  the  first  scientific  class  continue  to  succeed  in  examinations  for 
admission  into  special  schools;  the  success  obtained  by  them  subsequently  proves 
the  advantage  of  an  education  complete,  and  of  studies  reasonably  conducted 
without  being  limited  to  matters  required  for  the  entrance  examination. 

Physics  and  chemistry. — A change  has  been  wrought  in  the  programme  of  physics 
with  intent  to  lessen  its  tension  ^n  the  third  class  of  modern  humanities  and  in  the 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


115 


second  of  ancient  humanities.  That  part  of  light  relative  to  refraction  has  been 
carried  back  to  the  programme  of  the  second  class  in  the  section  of  modern  humani- 
ties and  to  the  class  of  rhetoric  in  that  of  ancient  humanities. 

The  requirement  for  future  doctors  of  medicine,  that  they  should  present  certifi- 
cates of  studies  showing  that  they  have  pursued  the  course  in  Greek,  has  obliged 
these  students  to  stop  the  study  of  chemistry,  despite  the  important  advantages 
offered  by  it  for  their  university  studies. 

The  course  of  chemistry,  not  being  pursued  except  by  students,  always  few,  of  the 
second  and  first  commercial  classes,  lost  much  oi  its  importance  at  the  very  time  when 
laboratories  were  thoroughly  organized  in  the  majority  of  the  secondary  schools. 

Commercial  sciences. — The  programme  of  bookkeeping  in  the  fourth  class  has  been 
divided.  One  part  is  now  given  in  the  fifth  class,  occupying  one  hour  a we^k,  the 
rest  in  the  fourth,  with  two  hours  a week.  The  time  devoted  to  that  study  remains 
the  same.  The  division  was  made  in  the  hope  that  pupils  destined  for  scientific 
studies  would  continue  in  the  fourth  class  the  study  of  accounts  begun  in  the  fifth, 
so  that  thus  the  professor  of  commerce  might  not  see  his  course  neglected  by  students. 

That  hope  does  not  seem  to  have  been  realized.  In  the  fifth  class  all  the  students 
follow  regularly  the  course  in  commerce,  which  is  important  for  their  passage  into 
the  fourth ; it  is  not  the  same  in  the  fourth.  Those  who  are  to  go  into  the  scientific 
section  know  that  results  obtained  in  commerce  have  no  influence  upon  their  passage 
into  the  third  class,  where  they  are  to  pursue  it  no  further. 

It  would  be  of  importance,  however,  to  future  engineers  and  directors  of  work- 
shops to  have  thorough  knowledge  of  accounting.  This  would  enable  them  to  verify 
their  own  books  and  render  them  more  exact  in  the  management  of  their  business. 

Drawing. — Results  in  the  course  in  drawing  vary  considerably  in  different  athenees. 
They  depend  less  on  the  artistic  accomplishment  of  the  professor  than  upon  his 
pedagogical  aptitude  and  especially  the  order  and  discipline  which  he  maintains. 

In  fine,  to  obtain  regular  and  continued  work  on  the  part  of  students  prizes  are 
bestowed  upon  the  oasis  of  all  the  marks  obtained  during  the  year.  At  the  end  of 
each  trimester  the  professor  sends  to  the  prefect  the  work  of  the  students  with  his 
marks. 

For  students  in  the  scientific  section  it  has  been  recommended  to  attach  much 
importance  to  linear  drawing.  Examinations  in  descriptive  geograj)hy,  held  during 
the  lessons  in  drawing,  are  much  more  careful  than  formerly.  The  correctors  of  the 
general  examination  notice  that  improvement. 

Gymnastics. — Instruction  iu  gymnastics  during  the  triennial  period,  1891-1895, 
remained  as  it  was  in  the  preceding  period.  Courses  are  organized  in  all  the  estab- 
lishments of  intermediate  instruction,  and  in  the  majority  of  them  half-hour  lessons 
are  given  conformably  to  ministerial  instructions.  Nevertheless  in  several  athenees 
and  in  a certain  number  of  intermediate  schools  each  lesson  lasts  a full  hour.  How- 
ever, the  number  of  institutions  wherein  this  obtains  diminishes  from  year  to  year. 

The  lessons,  more  often  than  otherwise,  are  given  after  class  hours;  that  is  to  say, 
at  11  or  half  past  11,  sometimes  at  noon,  or  at  4 o’clock.  The  consequence  is  that 
students  who  reside  at  considerable  distances  from  school  generally  leave  without 
participating  in  the  exercises. 

The  material  required  for  this  exercise,  good,  or  reasonably  so,  in  some  establish- 
ments, is  quite  inferior  in  others.  In  some  of  the  schools  there  is  no  equipment  for 
this  work,  communal  authorities  almost  always  refusing  to  make  expenditures, 
without  which  the  course  can  not  be  given  to  any  advantage.  Such  conditions  dis- 
courage both  professors  and  students,  and  are  the  cause  of  much  weakness  and 
irregularity. 


116 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-89. 

TECHNICAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS  OF  BELGIUM. 

The  system  of  technical  and  industrial  training  for  which  Belgium  is 
somewhat  noted  is  not  as  a whole  under  the  charge  of  the  minister  of 
public  instruction.  Three  grades  or  degrees  of  this  instruction  are 
recognized : To  the  Qlementaiy  degree  pertain  the  “ ecoles  profession- 
nelles ; 77  to  the  intermediate  grade,  the  industrial  schools;  both  of  these 
classes  are  under  the  minister  of  industry  and  labor.  The  superior 
degree  of  technical  instruction  is  comprised  in  the  engineering  depart- 
ments of  the  universities,  which  are  under  the  charge  of  the  minister 
of  education.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  distinguish  between  the 
first  two  classes  of  schools,  i.  b.,  the  “ecoles  profession!] elles 77  and  the 
industrial  schools;  indeed,  a few  schools  have  both  characters.  In  a 
report  presented  before  the  International  Congress  on  Technical  Educa- 
tion (London,  1897),  M.  Edouard  Seve  describes  these  schools  as 
follows: 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  industrial  schools  are  in  session 
in  the  evening  and  on  Sunday,  and  the  students  are  workmen  or 
employees  occupied  in  workshops  during  the  day.  The  “ professional” 
schools  are  open  every  week  day  and  have  their  own  shops,  where  the 
pupils  are  trained  in  manual  work. 

As  regards  their  direction  and  support,  the  schools  of  either  of  the 
two  classes  may  be  public  (communal)  schools  or  private  (libre).  The 
former  are  administered  by  a commission  in  which  communal  delegates 
must  form  a majority,  the  latter — that  is,  the  private  schools — are 
administered  by  representatives  of  industries  affected,  or  by  syndicates 
formed  by  the  workmen.  The  expenses  of  the  schools,  both  the  “ pro- 
fessional77  and  the  industrial,  are  borne  by  the  State,  the  province, 
the  commune,  and  by  private  persons.  Generally  the  State  bears  one- 
third  of  the  expense  (exclusive  of  rents  and  the  receipts  from  day 
pupils)  for  the  industrial  schools  and  two  thirds  for  the  “ professional,77 
whose  expenses  are  the  heavier. 

The  programmes  of  the  schools  vary  according  to  the  locality,  but 
they  all  have  a common  base,  which  comprises  drawing,  mathematics, 
geometry,  elements  of  x>hysics  and  of  mechanics, hygiene,  and  industrial 
economics.  Each  school  has  its  special  practical  course  appropriate  to 
the  industry  of  the  locality.  In  this  course  drawing  plays  an  impor- 
tant part,  developing  according  to  the  demands  of  the  technical  arts. 
Further  particulars  respecting  the  professional  schools  (ecoles  profes- 
sionnelles)  are  comprised  in  a paper  on  technical  instruction  and  private 
initiative  in  Belgium,  presented  before  the  same  congress  by  Oscar 
Pyfferoen,  doctor  of  laws  and  doctor  of  political  and  administrative 
science  and  professor  at  the  University  of  Ghent. 

JUcolcs professionnelles. — The  expression  professional  applied  to  schools 
which  give  instruction  in  special  manual  arts  is  misleading  #iu  its  Eng- 
lish form,  because  the  term  has  so  long  been  applied  to  schools  of  a 
very  different  character.  Its  meaning  as  applied  to  technical  schools 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


117 


in  Belgium  and  also  in  France  is  made  clear  by  Professor  Pyfferoen  by 
the  enumeration  of  the  special  trades  for  which  their  training  prepares. 
These  are  tailoring,  shoemaking,  painting,  carpentering,  upholstering, 
etc.  In  England  such  schools  are  classed  indiscriminately  as  technical 
and  as  trade  schools.  Professor  Pyfferoen  notes  at  the  outset  that  in 
Belgium  the  State  took  the  initiative  in  the  establishment  of  these 
schools,  and  he  contrasts  this  with  the  course  pursued  in  England  and 
in  Germany. 

In  Germany  corporations  generally  take  the  initiative  in  this  work. 
After  the  value  and  utility  of  the  schools  are  assured,  the  State  may 
come  to  their  aid  with  small  subsidies.  In  England  the  polytechnics 
and  higher  technical  schools  have  been  established  almost  entirely 
through  the  efforts  of  private  individuals  and  with  the  aid  of  funds 
subscribed  by  public-spirited  citizens.  In  Belgium  the  tendency  has 
been  to  depend  upon  the  State  for  provision  of  this  kind.  As  a con- 
sequence the  number  of  schools  has  not  multiplied  heretofore  in  pro- 
portion to  the  local  requirements,  the  difficulties  in  this  respect  being 
greater  than  are  experienced  in  countries  where  local  effort  is  the  main 
dependence.  Thus  for  a long  time  Belgium  had  only  one  or  two  tech- 
nical (professional)  schools  for  workers  in  wood  and  in  iron,  notably 
those  at  Ghent  and  at  Tournay,  a few  technical  courses  in  industrial 
schools,  a few  workshops  in  the  country  for  workers  in  textiles,  and  in 
Hainaut  workshops  for  apprentices  in  stonecutting. 

The  reluctance  of  artisans  and  manufacturers  to  establish  schools 
pertaining  to  their  respective  industries  is  explained  by  their  failing  to 
comprehend  the  value  of  the  training  and  their  unwillingness  to  bear 
the  initial  expense,  which  is  considerable.  Those  who  best  understand 
the  importance  of  the  training  are  themselves  too  old  to  profit  by  it 
and  show  little  disposition  to  make  provision  for  others. 

Development  of  private  initiative. — Within  a few  years  the  tendency 
in  this  respect  has  changed  somewhat.  The  Government  itself,  and 
especially  M.  Nyssens,  the  minister  of  industry  and  labor,  encourages 
private  initiative  and  strives  to  excite  it  by  holding  out  the  hope  of 
State  aid.  As  a consequence  of  these  efforts  technical  schools  have 
multiplied  within  a few  years,  and  the  State  subsidies  for  these  have 
been  increased,  reaching  in  1898  the  sum  of  $170,000,  most  of  which 
was  applied  to  schools  started  by  private  effort. 

Private  initiative  is  exercised  in  three  or  four  forms : 

(1)  In  many  districts  groups  of  artisans  or  workmen  form  syndicates 
or  associations  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  trade  schools  (ecoles  de 
metiers)  and  solicit  subsidies  from  the  State,  the  communes,  or  the 
provinces.  They  themselves  bear  a very  small  part  of  the  financial 
charge.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  schools  for  tailors  at  Brussels  and 
Liege,  schools  for  tapestry  workers,  clockmakers,  jewelers,  aud  hair 
dressers  at  Brussels ; of  armorers  at  Liege,  and  the  schools  for  brewers 
at  Ghent. 


118 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

By  the  manner  of  their  origin  these  various  schools  are  entirely 
separate  from  each  other.  Nowhere  in  Belgium  are  found  polytechnics 
like  those  of  England,  where  all  this  instruction  is  concentrated  under 
one  direction.  As  a rule  these  technical  or  trade  schools  of  Belgium 
are  day  schools  equipped  with  workshops,  and  have  a systematized 
course  extending  over  two  or  three  years.  They  are  intended  to  take 
the  actual  place  of  apprenticeship  and  to  turn  out  complete  workmen. 
From  these  conditions  also  it  becomes  necessary  to  pay  the  pupils  for 
coming  to  the  schools,  otherwise  the  parents  refuse  to  send  their  sons 
for  training,  preferring  to  put  them  at  once  into  the  shop  of  an  employer. 
Even  with  the  plan  of  paying  pupils  for  attending,  the  remuneration 
is  so  small  that  many  parents  will  not  sacrifice  the  chance  of  higher 
wages  and  allow  their  sons  to  take  the  time  for  training. 

The  men  also  who  make  their  living  by  working  at  the  small  trades 
oppose  the  day  trade  schools,  which  being  free  from  commercial  compe- 
tition can  sell  their  products  at  such  prices  as  they  may  command. 
Professor  Pyfferoen  suggests  as  a remedy  for  these  apparent  evils  that 
the  sessions  of  the  schools  should  be  held  in  the  evening,  which  would 
enable  those  who  are  working  to  have  the  benefit  of  the  training  while 
the}7  are  earning  wages,  and  also  that  the  workshops  of  the  schools 
should  be  used  simply  to  supplement  the  theoretic  teaching  and  not  to 
make  goods  for  the  market.  The  advantages  of  this  plan  are  seen  from 
the  school  for  printers  at  Brussels,  which  is  an  evening  school  open  only 
to  those  who  are  already  working  at  the  trade.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
serious  crisis  was  provoked  by  the  opening  of  a day  school  of  metal- 
lurgy. The  young  apprentices  from  this  school,  passing  forth  into  the 
workshops,  crowded  out  experienced  workmen  and  excited  the  jealousy 
of  their  fellow  laborers.  The  consequence  was  a strike,  which  had  a 
disastrous  effect  on  the  industry. 

(2)  Another  type  of  technical  schools  due  to  private  initiative,  and  one 
for  which  Belgium  is  specially  noted,  is  found  in  schools  established  by 
the  religious  orders.  The  most  important  schools  of  this  class  are  the 
academies  of  drawing  and  the  St.  Luke  Technical  Schools  (ecoles  pro- 
fessionelles  St.  Luc),  directed  by  the  Christian  Brothers.  The  major- 
ity of  the  St.  Luke  schools  confine  themselves  to  the  trades,  for  which 
a knowledge  of  drawing  is  the  chief  requisite;  some  of  them,  however, 
go  farther  and  include  workshop  practice.  Until  recently  these  schools 
have  had  no  aid  from  the  State. 

The  schools  of  St.  Luke  are  for  day  pupils  exclusively.  But  there 
are  numerous  orphanages  and  boarding  schools  maintained  by  other 
religious  orders  in  which  technical  training  finds  a place.  Such  are  the 
schools  of  the  Salesian  priests  at  Liege  and  of  the  Brothers  of  Our  Lady 
of  Lourdes  at  Oostacker  and  Maltebrugge,  which  have  technical  depart- 
ments, to  which  day  scholars  as  well  as  boarders  are  admitted.  The 
Brothers  in  charge  of  the  schools  take  orders  for  work,  but  the  pupils 
receive  no  money  for  their  work.  They  are,  however,  lodged,  fed,  and 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


119 


clothed  at  tlie  expense  of  the  establishment.  The  period  of  apprentice- 
ship is  from  five  to  six  years. 

According  to  Professor  Pyfferoen  the  principal  objections  to  the  sys- 
tem of  these  schools  is  the  length  of  the  period  of  training  under 
conditions  unlike  those  actually  affecting  the  trades  for  which  the  pupils 
are  preparing  and  the  absence  of  effective  stimulus  in  their  daily 
routine.  Complaint  is  also  made  that  these  establishments  compete 
unfairly  with  private  industries.  This  is  not  a legitimate  objection  to 
the  training  itself,  but  simply  to  the  work  as  managed  by  the  religious 
orders.  Corresponding  to  the  schools  for  boys  maintained  by  the 
Brothers  are  the  u ouvroirs”  for  young  girls.  These  are  schools  main- 
tained generally  by  religious  sisterhoods,  but  in  some  cases  by  private 
individuals,  where  young  women  are  trained  for  the  manual  arts  which 
are  open  to  them,  such  as  the  cutting  and  making  of  garments,  plain 
sewing,  and  embroidery.  In  the  same  category  as  regards  their  pur- 
pose are  the  schools  of  domestic  art  and  economy,  which  exist  in  all 
the  cities  and  many  of  the  rural  communes  of  Belgium.  They  are 
attached  generally  to  the  elementary  school,  whether  public  or  private, 
and  are  often  under  the  patronage  of  women  of  noble  rank,  and  in 
some  cases  even  of  members  of  the  Royal  family. 

(3)  The  demand  for  commercial  education  has  given  rise  to  a third 
form  of  private  initiative  in  the  establishment  of  technical  schools. 
The  Commercial  School  of  Antwerp  (Institut  Superieur  de  Commerce 
d’  Anvers),  which  has  existed  for  a long  time,  is  a State  school.  Recently 
several  similar  schools  have  been  founded  by  private  effort.  These 
have  been  established  either  by  church  authorities  or  private  associa- 
tions. An  example  of  the  former  is  found  at  Louviere.  Here  a church 
college  has  annexed  a section  of  commercial  studies  which  bids  fair  to 
surpass  even  the  school  at  Antwerp.  The  work  of  associations  is  illus- 
trated by  the  Cercle  Polyglotte  of  Liege.  It  comprises  500  members, 
who  pay  each  a small  annual  fee.  The  fund  thus  secured  enables  the 
society  to  maintain  evening  schools,  where,  for  a small  tuition  fee,  young 
men  may  fit  themselves  for  commercial  business.  It  seldom  happens 
in  Belgium  that  the  great  manufacturers  show  the  disposition  to  pro- 
mote technical  training  by  such  princely  gifts  as  are  freely  subscribed 
by  English  manufacturers  for  the  foundation  of  technical  schools. 

In  this  respect,  France  also  greatly  surpasses  Belgium.  At  Roubaix 
and  at  Tourcoing  notable  schools  of  spinning,  weaving,  and  dyeing 
are  maintained  without  public  subventions  from  any  source.  The  only 
example  of  this  sort  in  Belgium  is  that  of  Yerviers,  where  subscriptions 
running  up  into  the  hundred  thousand  francs  have  been  secured  for 
technical  schools. 

In  concluding  his  survey,  Professor  Pyfferoen  says: 

If  in  Belgium  private  initiative  has  varied  developments,  it  is  because  of  the  lib- 
eral character  of  our  institutions  and  the  assistance  afforded  by  the  public  authorities. 

As  yet,  there  is  no  settled  legislation  respecting  technical  instruction  in  its  three 


120 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 


degrees.  So  far  the  experiments  have  heen  empirical  in  their  character.  It  seems 
that  it  would  be  desirable  to  apply  to  this  department  the  principles  adopted  for 
primary  instruction,  namely,  public  subsidies  for  private  schools  and  at  the  same 
time  the  maintenance  of  public  schools  at  the  cost  of  the  State,  the  provinces,  and 
the  communes,  which  should  serve  as  models  to  the  private  establishments  or  fill  the 
gaps  left  by  private  efforts. 

The  hope  is  also  expressed  by  the  author  that  the  policy  of  giving  civil 
personality  to  private  technical  schools  may  soon  be  adopted,  so  that  the 
schools  may  have  the  right  to  receive,  to  part  with,  and  to  manage  their 
own  property.  Until  they  have  such  legal  recognition,  their  existence 
and  future  are  insecure.  The  example  of  England  is  quoted  where  the 
administration  of  such  schools  by  trust  committees  has  proved  eminently 
successful. 

Superior  technical  school. — What  has  been  called  the  superior  or 
higher  degree  of  technical  instruction  in  Belgium  is  comprised  in  schools 
annexed  to  the  universities,  namely,  schools  of  art  and  manufactures, 
mining  schools,  and  schools  of  civil  engineering.  Two  of  the  four 
universities — the  University  of  Liege  and  the  University  of  Ghent — are 
State  universities;  the  other  two — Brussels  and  Louvain — are  private 
foundations.  Each  of  these  universities  comprises  the  four  faculties  of 
philosophy  and  letters,  law,  science,  and  medicine.  The  University  of 
Louvain  possesses  also  a faculty  of  theology  under  the  surveillance  of 
the  Catholic  Episcopate  of  Belgium. 

A number  of  technical  schools  have  been  grouped  around  the  univer- 
sities as  adjuncts  of  the  faculties  of  science. 

All  the  universities  possess  schools  of  engineering  and  of  architecture, 
but  only  those  belonging  to  the  two  State  universities  have  the  privi- 
lege of  preparing  engineers  for  the  service  of  the  State.  The  engineer- 
ing school  of  Liege  recruits  the  mining  service,  and  that  of  Ghent 
prepares  engineers  for  the  construction  of  public  roads  and  bridges. 

The  technical  school  of  the  University  of  Liege,  founded  in  1825, 
comprises  four  sections — the  school  of  mines,  the  school  of  arts  and 
manufactures,  the  section  of  mechanics,  and  the  section  of  electricity. 
These  four  sections  lead  respectively  to  the  diploma  of  honorary  engi- 
neer or  of  civil  engineer  of  mines ; of  civil  engineer  of  arts  and  manu- 
factures; of  mechanical  engineer  (d’ingenieur  civil  mecanicien);  of 
electrical  engineer.  ^The  institution  is  admirably  equipped  with  appa- 
ratus, laboratories,  etc.;  it  has  an  ample  teaching  force,  and  the 
instruction  is  supplemented  by  expeditions  to  the  mines  and  the  man- 
ufactories in  which  the  province  of  Liege  abounds. 

The  special  school  of  civil  engineering  attached  to  the  University  of 
Ghent  comprises  an  inferior  section  for  the  training  of  assistant  engi- 
neers and  a superior  division  for  the  training  of  engineers.  This  uni- 
versity possesses  also  a school  of  arts  and  manufactures  for  young  men 
who  seek  the  diploma  of  industrial  engineer.  The  school  comprises  in 
its  programme  the  branches  necessary  for  the  application  of  the  sciences 
to  the  general  processes  of  industry  and  to  particular  manufactures.  It 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


121 


consists  of  a preparatory  division  having  a two  years7  course,  and  a 
division  for  practical  work  called  the  special  school  of  arts  and  manu- 
factures, in  which  the  course  is  also  two  years.  This  division  is  open 
to  students  from  all  countries. 

The  Polytechnic  School  of  the  University  of  Brussels,  founded  in 
1873,  is  intended  to  teach  the  application  of  the  sciences  to  the  arts  and 
to  industry.  It  comprises  the  following  sections:  Mining,  civil,  and 
mechanical  engineering,  metallurgy,  industrial  chemistry,  and  archi- 
tecture. The  University  of  Louvain  has  also  annexed  to  it  a special 
school  of  arts  and  manufactures,  of  civil  and  mining  engineering,  and 
a superior  school  of  agriculture. 

The  importance  of  this  provision  for  higher  technical  training  is 
indicated  by  the  large  proportion  of  students  availing  themselves  of 
the  same.  The  official  statistics  for  1895  show  the  following  distribution 
of  university  students  for  that  year : 


University. 

Total 
nmn  iter 
of 

students. 

Number  in  the 
special  schools. 

Engi- 

neering. 

Arts  and 
manu- 
factures. 

filifint, 

640 
1,  248 
1,636 
1,  311 

145 
a ‘l 

71 

122 

Liege 

Louvain 

433 

139 

Brussels  

a By  tlie  law  of  June  30, 1893,  the  technical  schools  of  Li6ge  are  grouped  together  under  the  title  of 
technical  faculty. 


The  total  number  of  students  in  the  four  universities  was  4,835.  Of 
these  937  were  enrolled  in  the  faculties  of  science  and  1,010  were  in 
the  technical  faculty  of  Liege  and  the  special  schools  of  the  remaining 
universities. 

Auxiliary  institutions. — The  development  of  this  special  training  in 
the  industrial  arts  is  promoted  also  by  the  Boyal  Academy  of  Science, 
of  Letters,  and  of  Fine  Arts,  which  has  its  seat  at  Brussels,  and  is 
under  the  immediate  patronage  of  the  King. 

The  discussion  of  questions  bearing  upon  technical  instruction  is 
encouraged  by  prizes  from  the  funds  of  this  academy. 

Besides  the  universities  with  their  special  schools,  there  are  several 
other  establishments  in  Belgium  which  are  included  among  those  of 
higher  grade  and  which  give  combined  theoretic  and  practical  training. 
Among  these  are  included  the  Schools  of  Art  and  Music.  The  princi- 
pal institution  of  the  former  class  is  the  Boyal  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
founded  at  Antwerp  in  1G63.  It  is  administered  by  the  Government 
and  the  city  council  and  consists  of  two  divisions,  the  Superior  Institute 
and  the  Academy  proper ; the  former  is  designed  to  give  complete  train- 
ing in  the  graphic  and  plastic  arts.  The  courses  of  the  latter  include 
elementary  training  in  drawing  and  its  applications,  and  the  preparatory 
stages  of  the  graphic  and  plastic  arts.  The  Boyal  Academy  of  Fine 


122 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 


Arts  and  School  of  Decorative  Arts  of  Brussels  is  similar  in  scope 
to  the  Antwerp  school.  In  the  same  category  are  included  the 
conservatories  of  music  for  which  Belgium  is  noted. 

The  enrollment  in  the  royal  conservatories  was  as  follows  at  the  date 
of  the  latest  report  : 


Conservatory. 

X umbo 
dents 

Men. 

r of  stu- 
, 1895. 

Women. 

% 

Brussels 

436 

829 

498 

238 

Ghent 

278 

280 

There  are  also  about  225  schools  of  music,  of  which  50  are  communal 
establishments  receiving  subsidies  from  the  State.  These  had  at  the 
date  of  the  last  report  11,507  pupils,  of  whom  6,042  were  men  and 
4,025  women. 

The  Government  and  local  authorities  stimulate  the  culture  of  national 
taste  and  artistic  skill  by  grants  in  aid  of  the  schools  and  the  organi- 
zation of  musical  festivals  and  expositions  of  fine  arts,  for  which  liberal 
appropriations  are  made. 

The  State  gives  also  great  encouragement  to  instruction  in  agricul- 
ture and  commerce. 

The  State  Agricultural  Institute  at  Gembloux,  in  the  province  of 
Namur,  was  founded  by  the  Government  in  1805.  It  includes  an  experi- 
mental station  and  a finely  equipped  laboratory.  The  diploma  of  agri- 
cultural engineer  is  bestowed  upon  the  students  who  successfully  pass 
examination  before  a State  board.  Those  who  pass  with  special  dis- 
tinction receive  subsidies  to  enable  them  to  continue  their  studies  and 
researches  in  foreign  countries. 

The  Superior  Institute  of  Commerce  at  Antwerp  completes  the  list  of 
special  schools  endowed  by  the  State.  By  a law  of  1883  the  diploma 
of  this  institute  is  placed  on  an  equality  with  the  university  diplomas. 

The  following  tables  summarize  the  principal  statistics  of  the  several 
classes  of  special  schools  here  considered : 


' 


EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM 


123 


SPECIAL  SCHOOLS. 

Table  showing  the  number  of  subsidized  institutions,  number  of  professors,  number  of 
j pupils,  number  of  diplomas  delivered,  and  subsidies  given  in  1895-96. 


i 

( 

|Name  of  institution. 

1 

f 

1885-86. 

1895-96. 

Subsidies  for  1895-96. 

Number  subsidized 
by  the  State. 

m 

u 

© . 

« £ 
© O 

£.© 

-I 

© ft 

2 g 

S 

£ 

© 

TJ 

03 

ft 

o 

© 

r= 

g 

s 

ft 

N umber  of  diplomas 
delivered. 

Number  subsidized 
by  the  State. 

N um  her  of  directors 
and  professors. 

Number  of  students. 

Number  of  diplomas 

delivered. 

From  the  State. 

From  the  provinces. 

From  the  communes. 

Other  sources. 

| Total. 

Higher  Commercial  In- 

stitute of  Commerce  * 

of  Antwerp 

1 

16 

137 

37 

1 

16 

230 

57 

$8,  655 

$2, 885 

$10,  279 

$21,819 

Provincial  School  of  In- 

dustry and  of  Mines 

of  Hainaut  (at  Mons)  . 

1 

13 

58 

15 

1 

17 

215 

30 

4,  263 

$6,  902 

2,  041 

2,  600 

15,  771 

Superior  Textile  School 

; ( Vorviera) 

1 

9 

17 

School  for  brewers  (rue 

de  Bruger,  Ghent) 

1 

12 

57 

26 

1, 165 

150 

200 

4, 852 

6,  368 

School  for  brewers  (In- 

1 

stitute  St.  Lievin, 

Ghent)  ...* 

1 

6 

19 

6 

500 

950 

1,450 

School  for  brewers  (In- 

stitut  St.  Joseph,  La 

1 Louvi&re)  ............. 

1 

6 

17 

6 

500 

760 

1,  260 

1 

Total 

i i 

2 

29 

195 

52 

6 

66 

555 

125 

15,  083 

7,  052 

5, 126 

19,441 

46,668 

_ 


INDUSTRIAL,  TECHNICAL,  AND  HOUSEWIFERY  SCHOOLS. 

Table  showing  the  number  of  subsidized  institutions,  number  of  teachers,  number  of  pupils, 
and  amount  of  subsidies  accorded  in  1895-96. 


1885-86. 

1895-96. 

Subsidies  for  1895-96. 

Name  of  institution. 

Number  subsidized 
by  the  State. 

Number  of  directors 
and  professors. 

Number  of  students. 

Number  subsidized 
by  the  State. 

Number  of  directors 
and  teachers. 

Number  of  students. 

From  the  State. 

From  the  provinces. 

From  the  communes. 

Other  sources.  * 

Total. 

Technical  instruction  for 

young  girls 

65 

886 

26 

242 

2,  004 

$20,  060 

$3, 832 

$23,551 

$26,  613 

$74, 058 

Apprenticeship  schools 
for  young  girls  and  for 

boys 

46 

47 

926 

55 

60 

1, 158 

8,066 

2,  574 

3,  711 

3,  727 

18,  078 

Technical  schools  for 

boys 

7 

33 

459 

23 

144 

3,301 

555 

10, 616 

2,440 

7,  397 

14, 645 

35, 099 

Special  schools 

2 

29 

195 

6 

66 

15,  047 

7,  052 

5,  126 

19, 442 

46,  669 

Industrial  schools 

32 

329 

9,  478 

40 

466 

13,015 

50,  116 

24,  860 

48,  485 

8;  091 

131, 553 

Housewifery 

2 

4 

90 

225 

450 

9,  539 

18,  427 

5,  214 

11,801 

14,  730 

50,  173 

Total j.. 

92 

507 

12,  014 

375 

1,428 

29, 572 

122,  332 

45,  972 

100,  071 

87, 248  j 

355,  630 

